https://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&feed=atom&action=historyOverview of Geospatial/Geodetic Engineering - Revision history2024-03-28T15:26:56ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.35.13https://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=69491&oldid=prevCdhoffman: Text replacement - "SEBoK v. 2.9, released 13 November 2023" to "SEBoK v. 2.9, released 20 November 2023"2023-11-18T22:10:43Z<p>Text replacement - "SEBoK v. 2.9, released 13 November 2023" to "SEBoK v. 2.9, released 20 November 2023"</p>
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</table>Cdhoffmanhttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=68940&oldid=prevBkcase: Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.8, released 31 May 2023'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.9, released 13 November 2023'''</center>"2023-10-22T18:55:05Z<p>Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.8, released 31 May 2023'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.9, released 13 November 2023'''</center>"</p>
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</table>Bkcasehttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=68066&oldid=prevApyster: /* Primary References */2023-05-23T18:21:02Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Primary References</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Primary References===</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Primary References===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Grafarend, E.W., R.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-</del>J. You, and R. Syffus. 2014. ''[[Map Projections: Cartographic Information Systems]]'', (2nd edition). Heidelberg, New Yort, Dordrecht, London: Springer.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Grafarend, E.W., R.J. You, and R. Syffus. 2014. ''[[Map Projections: Cartographic Information Systems]]'', (2nd edition). Heidelberg, New Yort, Dordrecht, London: Springer.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., H. Lichtenegger, and E. Wasle. 2008. ''[[GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems.]]'' Wien: Springer-Verlag.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., H. Lichtenegger, and E. Wasle. 2008. ''[[GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems.]]'' Wien: Springer-Verlag.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Kraak, M.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-</del>J. and F. J. Ormeling. 2020. ''[[Cartography: Visualization of Geospatial Data]]'', (4th edition). London, New York: Taylor & Francis.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Kraak, M.J. and F. J. Ormeling. 2020. ''[[Cartography: Visualization of Geospatial Data]]'', (4th edition). London, New York: Taylor & Francis.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Kresse, W. and D.M. Danko (Eds.). 2012. ''[[Springer Handbook of Geographic Information.]]'' Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Kresse, W. and D.M. Danko (Eds.). 2012. ''[[Springer Handbook of Geographic Information.]]'' Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.</div></td></tr>
</table>Apysterhttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=67413&oldid=prevBkcase: Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.7, released 31 October 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.8, released 31 May 2023'''</center>"2023-05-17T17:34:55Z<p>Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.7, released 31 October 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.8, released 31 May 2023'''</center>"</p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7</del>, released 31 <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">October 2022</del>'''</center></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">8</ins>, released 31 <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">May 2023</ins>'''</center></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Knowledge Area]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Knowledge Area]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Systems Engineering and Geospatial/Geodetic Engineering]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Systems Engineering and Geospatial/Geodetic Engineering]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Bkcasehttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=66563&oldid=prevBkcase: Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 20 May 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.7, released 31 October 2022'''</center>"2022-10-10T08:34:12Z<p>Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 20 May 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.7, released 31 October 2022'''</center>"</p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">6</del>, released <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20 May </del>2022'''</center></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">7</ins>, released <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">31 October </ins>2022'''</center></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Part 6]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Part 6]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Knowledge Area]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Knowledge Area]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Systems Engineering and Geospatial/Geodetic Engineering]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Systems Engineering and Geospatial/Geodetic Engineering]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Bkcasehttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=65173&oldid=prevWikiWorks: Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 13 May 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 20 May 2022'''</center>"2022-05-19T19:29:18Z<p>Text replacement - "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 13 May 2022'''</center>" to "<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released 20 May 2022'''</center>"</p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">13 </del>May 2022'''</center></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><center>'''SEBoK v. 2.6, released <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">20 </ins>May 2022'''</center></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Part 6]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Category:Part 6]]</div></td></tr>
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</table>WikiWorkshttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=64675&oldid=prevApyster: /* GIS and Geospatial Applications */2022-05-15T14:33:35Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">GIS and Geospatial Applications</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 14:33, 15 May 2022</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Perhaps the most comprehensive recent standard textbooks on {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|Geographical Information Systems (GIS)}} are Longley et al. (2015) and Kresse and Danko (2012). Beyond these two books, there are many others on GIS and respective spatial data capture procedures (surveying, photogrammetry, and {{Term|remote sensing (glossary)|remote sensing}}) and management applications. Tomlinson (2019) and Peters (2012) as well as the online successor to this text book, [http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Strategies System Design Strategies], provide valuable insights into aspects of how to set up a GIS system. While Tomlinson (2019) looks more at the management perspective and processes of implementing a GIS, Peters (2012) focuses more on technical aspects.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Perhaps the most comprehensive recent standard textbooks on {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|Geographical Information Systems (GIS)}} are Longley et al. (2015) and Kresse and Danko (2012). Beyond these two books, there are many others on GIS and respective spatial data capture procedures (surveying, photogrammetry, and {{Term|remote sensing (glossary)|remote sensing}}) and management applications. Tomlinson (2019) and Peters (2012) as well as the online successor to this text book, [http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Strategies System Design Strategies], provide valuable insights into aspects of how to set up a GIS system. While Tomlinson (2019) looks more at the management perspective and processes of implementing a GIS, Peters (2012) focuses more on technical aspects.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Domain (glossary)|Domain}}-specific GIS applications are also documented in numerous textbooks. Domain areas include agriculture and forestry, insurance economics and {{Term|Risk (glossary)|risk}} analysis, {{Term|Simulation (glossary)|simulation}} and environmental impact analysis, hydrology, archaeology, ecology, crime investigation and forensics, disaster management and first responders, marketing, municipalities and cadaster, land administration and urban planning, utility sectors, telecommunications, smart cities and military applications. The latter include Command and Control (C2) systems, or are even extended in Command, Control, Communications, Computers Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems. Generally speaking, wherever data about events is displayed or {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayed}}, processed and/or analyzed in a geospatial context, GIS technology is involved. The particular type of user interface doesn't matter. It could be a web interface, a desktop client, or a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet computer. To provide visualization of this data there must be spatial context for orientation, {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} such as digital topographic {{Term|Map (glossary)|maps}}, or {{Term|Geographic Imagery (glossary)|geographic imagery}}, {{Term|Digital Terrain Model (DTM) (glossary)|Digital Terrain Models (DTM)}}, etc. Beyond such classical <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|geographic </del>data <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(glossary)|geographic data}}</del>, other types of data are also often used, such as meteorological and other environmental data.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Domain (glossary)|Domain}}-specific GIS applications are also documented in numerous textbooks. Domain areas include agriculture and forestry, insurance economics and {{Term|Risk (glossary)|risk}} analysis, {{Term|Simulation (glossary)|simulation}} and environmental impact analysis, hydrology, archaeology, ecology, crime investigation and forensics, disaster management and first responders, marketing, municipalities and cadaster, land administration and urban planning, utility sectors, telecommunications, smart cities and military applications. The latter include Command and Control (C2) systems, or are even extended in Command, Control, Communications, Computers Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems. Generally speaking, wherever data about events is displayed or {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayed}}, processed and/or analyzed in a geospatial context, GIS technology is involved. The particular type of user interface doesn't matter. It could be a web interface, a desktop client, or a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet computer. To provide visualization of this data there must be spatial context for orientation, {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} such as digital topographic {{Term|Map (glossary)|maps}}, or {{Term|Geographic Imagery (glossary)|geographic imagery}}, {{Term|Digital Terrain Model (DTM) (glossary)|Digital Terrain Models (DTM)}}, etc. Beyond such classical <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">geographical </ins>data, other types of data are also often used, such as meteorological and other environmental data.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Interoperability (glossary)|Interoperability}} is of major concern in geospatial technology. The [http://www.opengeospatial.org Open Geospatial Consortium] (OGC) is probably the most relevant {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organization}} that deals with GIS and sensor systems interoperability. The OGC has published a dedicated set of {{Term|Interface (glossary)|interface}} [http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards specification standards] on their topics.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Interoperability (glossary)|Interoperability}} is of major concern in geospatial technology. The [http://www.opengeospatial.org Open Geospatial Consortium] (OGC) is probably the most relevant {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organization}} that deals with GIS and sensor systems interoperability. The OGC has published a dedicated set of {{Term|Interface (glossary)|interface}} [http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards specification standards] on their topics.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The previous description of geospatial technology focused mostly on stationary objects, i.e. on non-moving geospatial data. This section is mainly concerned with objects in <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Motion (glossary)|</del>motion<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>, i.e. objects moving in space and with derived applications such as {{Term|navigation (glossary)|navigation}}, monitoring, and tracking such objects. The basic operations needed are {{Term|Geopositioning (glossary)|(geo-)positioning}} and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|navigation (glossary)|</del>navigation<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>. Certainly, the majority of people using smartphones are also using various {{Term|Location-Based Service (LBS) (glossary)|location based services (LBS)}} that are provided in conjunction with {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}} databases and services, such as Google Maps, a well-known online GIS application. As a consequence, {{Term|Geopositioning (glossary)|positioning}} and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|</del>navigation <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(glossary)|navigation}}</del>, which are mainly achieved with {{Term|Satellite Positioning System (glossary)|satellite positioning systems}} such as Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), have became ubiquitous and transparent technologies in the last decade. Clearly the most relevant system in common use in the past has been the US Global Positioning System (GPS) since it was the first of its kind. However, it is not the only one of its kind. Russia developed a GNSS called GLONASS; Europe developed the Galileo system which is close to achieving full operating capability; China is working on its Beidhou GNSS. GNSS are used for more than <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Geopositioning (glossary)|</del>positioning<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|</del>navigation <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(glossary)|navigation}}</del>. Since range measurements conducted by GNSS are based on extremely accurate one-way travel times of signals, these satellites have extremely accurate clocks. GNSS transmit this time for use by other {{Term|System (glossary)|systems}}, enabling time synchronization of systems and also applications that require frequency normals that can be derived from these time signals. Together, these three GNSS services are called Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT). For more on <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Satellite Positioning System (glossary)|</del>satellite positioning systems<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>and satellite navigation, two excellent sources are Teunissen and Montenbruck (2017) and Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. (2008). </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The previous description of geospatial technology focused mostly on stationary objects, i.e. on non-moving geospatial data. This section is mainly concerned with objects in motion, i.e. objects moving in space and with derived applications such as {{Term|navigation (glossary)|navigation}}, monitoring, and tracking such objects. The basic operations needed are {{Term|Geopositioning (glossary)|(geo-)positioning}} and navigation. Certainly, the majority of people using smartphones are also using various {{Term|Location-Based Service (LBS) (glossary)|location based services (LBS)}} that are provided in conjunction with {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}} databases and services, such as Google Maps, a well-known online GIS application. As a consequence, {{Term|Geopositioning (glossary)|positioning}} and navigation, which are mainly achieved with {{Term|Satellite Positioning System (glossary)|satellite positioning systems}} such as Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), have became ubiquitous and transparent technologies in the last decade. Clearly the most relevant system in common use in the past has been the US Global Positioning System (GPS) since it was the first of its kind. However, it is not the only one of its kind. Russia developed a GNSS called GLONASS; Europe developed the Galileo system which is close to achieving full operating capability; China is working on its Beidhou GNSS. GNSS are used for more than positioning and navigation. Since range measurements conducted by GNSS are based on extremely accurate one-way travel times of signals, these satellites have extremely accurate clocks. GNSS transmit this time for use by other {{Term|System (glossary)|systems}}, enabling time synchronization of systems and also applications that require frequency normals that can be derived from these time signals. Together, these three GNSS services are called Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT). For more on satellite positioning systems and satellite navigation, two excellent sources are Teunissen and Montenbruck (2017) and Hofmann-Wellenhof et al. (2008). </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The public does not generally appreciate how many <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|System (glossary)|</del>systems<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>used in various <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Domain (glossary)|</del>domains<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>rely on the {{Term|Availability (glossary)|availability}} of GPS/GNSS signals. The majority of national critical {{Term|Infrastructure (glossary)|infrastructures}} is now dependent on GNSS (Royal Academy of Engineering 2013; Wallischeck 2016). Thus the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Availability (glossary)|</del>availability<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>of open access to GNSS signals is itself considered critical <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Infrastructure (glossary)|</del>infrastructures<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>. Example <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Infrastructure (glossary)|</del>infrastructures<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>and applications that depend on GNSS include transport (rail, road, aviation, marine, cycling, walking), agriculture, fisheries, law enforcement, highways management, services for vulnerable people, energy production and management, surveying, dredging, health services, financial services, information services, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, safety monitoring, scientific and environmental studies, search and rescue (e.g. as given with the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, GMDSS), telecommunications, tracking vehicles and valuable or hazardous cargoes, and quantum cryptography (Royal Academy of Engineering 2013).</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The public does not generally appreciate how many systems used in various domains rely on the {{Term|Availability (glossary)|availability}} of GPS/GNSS signals. The majority of national critical {{Term|Infrastructure (glossary)|infrastructures}} is now dependent on GNSS (Royal Academy of Engineering 2013; Wallischeck 2016). Thus the availability of open access to GNSS signals is itself considered critical infrastructures. Example infrastructures and applications that depend on GNSS include transport (rail, road, aviation, marine, cycling, walking), agriculture, fisheries, law enforcement, highways management, services for vulnerable people, energy production and management, surveying, dredging, health services, financial services, information services, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, safety monitoring, scientific and environmental studies, search and rescue (e.g. as given with the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, GMDSS), telecommunications, tracking vehicles and valuable or hazardous cargoes, and quantum cryptography (Royal Academy of Engineering 2013).</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The above sections are application-oriented. However, at a more basic level, all numerical (coordinate-wise) descriptions of natural and man-made stationary and mobile objects, including satellites, need to be referenced to a {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}}. It may be a local stationary {{Term|Engineering Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|engineering coordinate reference system}}, a (moving) {{Term|Internal Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|internal coordinate reference system}} that is fixed to an object (in <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Motion (glossary)|</del>motion<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>), a national spatial reference system, a regional spatial reference system, or even a global spatial reference system, e.g. that given by the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84, cf. National Imagery and Mapping Agency 2004), which is the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|</del>spatial reference system<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>in which GPS works. 2-dimensional ("horizontal") <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|</del>coordinates<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>such as the combination of latitude and longitude in a {{Term|Geodetic Coordinate System (glossary)|geodetic coordinate system}} are fairly straightforward because they are based mainly on mathematical assumptions. The shape of the Earth is approximated by an {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} on whose surface the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|</del>coordinates<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>are defined, and the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} is fixed to the Earth via a {{Term|Geodetic Datum (glossary)|geodetic datum}}/{{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Actually also the definition of the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|</del>ellipsoid<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>itself is part of the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|</del>geodetic reference frame<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>. Only little input from geophysics is needed (the localization of the rotation axis of the Earth). The third dimension, however, is mostly treated differently. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Height (glossary)|</del>Heights<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>in general are referenced to a reference surface. For {{Term|Ellipsoidal Height or Geodetic Height (glossary)|ellipsoidal heights}} this is the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|</del>ellipsoid<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>, but since ellipsoidal heights can cause confusion as they do not consider the mass characteristics of the Earth with their distribution, it is more common to use {{Term|Height (glossary)|heights}} that are related to a {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|mean sea level (MSL)}} surface. The latter is mainly dependent on the (irregular!) distribution of masses on Earth and thus on their physical properties. The typical surface used for referencing these {{Term|Gravity-Related Height (glossary)|gravity-related heights}} is the so-called {{Term|Geoid (glossary)|geoid}} which may be approximated by {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|MSL}}. Beyond these Earth related aspects, however, there are also celestial {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} and {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} on other celestial bodies. Torge and Müller (2012) offers more information on these systems. Thus, geodetic engineering with its sub-disciplines of physical and mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} together with related engineering disciplines provide fundamental frameworks for various applications in science and technology including {{Term|System of Systems (SoS) (glossary)|systems of systems}}.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The above sections are application-oriented. However, at a more basic level, all numerical (coordinate-wise) descriptions of natural and man-made stationary and mobile objects, including satellites, need to be referenced to a {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}}. It may be a local stationary {{Term|Engineering Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|engineering coordinate reference system}}, a (moving) {{Term|Internal Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|internal coordinate reference system}} that is fixed to an object (in motion), a national spatial reference system, a regional spatial reference system, or even a global spatial reference system, e.g. that given by the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84, cf. National Imagery and Mapping Agency 2004), which is the spatial reference system in which GPS works. 2-dimensional ("horizontal") coordinates such as the combination of latitude and longitude in a {{Term|Geodetic Coordinate System (glossary)|geodetic coordinate system}} are fairly straightforward because they are based mainly on mathematical assumptions. The shape of the Earth is approximated by an {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} on whose surface the coordinates are defined, and the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} is fixed to the Earth via a {{Term|Geodetic Datum (glossary)|geodetic datum}}/{{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Actually also the definition of the ellipsoid itself is part of the geodetic reference frame. Only little input from geophysics is needed (the localization of the rotation axis of the Earth). The third dimension, however, is mostly treated differently. Heights in general are referenced to a reference surface. For {{Term|Ellipsoidal Height or Geodetic Height (glossary)|ellipsoidal heights}} this is the ellipsoid, but since ellipsoidal heights can cause confusion as they do not consider the mass characteristics of the Earth with their distribution, it is more common to use {{Term|Height (glossary)|heights}} that are related to a {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|mean sea level (MSL)}} surface. The latter is mainly dependent on the (irregular!) distribution of masses on Earth and thus on their physical properties. The typical surface used for referencing these {{Term|Gravity-Related Height (glossary)|gravity-related heights}} is the so-called {{Term|Geoid (glossary)|geoid}} which may be approximated by {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|MSL}}. Beyond these Earth related aspects, however, there are also celestial {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} and {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} on other celestial bodies. Torge and Müller (2012) offers more information on these systems. Thus, geodetic engineering with its sub-disciplines of physical and mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} together with related engineering disciplines provide fundamental frameworks for various applications in science and technology including {{Term|System of Systems (SoS) (glossary)|systems of systems}}.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td></tr>
</table>Apysterhttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=64674&oldid=prevApyster: /* GIS and Geospatial Applications */2022-05-15T14:26:32Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">GIS and Geospatial Applications</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 14:26, 15 May 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l11" >Line 11:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Perhaps the most comprehensive recent standard textbooks on {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|Geographical Information Systems (GIS)}} are Longley et al. (2015) and Kresse and Danko (2012). Beyond these two books, there are many others on GIS and respective spatial data capture procedures (surveying, photogrammetry, and {{Term|remote sensing (glossary)|remote sensing}}) and management applications. Tomlinson (2019) and Peters (2012) as well as the online successor to this text book, [http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Strategies System Design Strategies], provide valuable insights into aspects of how to set up a GIS system. While Tomlinson (2019) looks more at the management perspective and processes of implementing a GIS, Peters (2012) focuses more on technical aspects.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Perhaps the most comprehensive recent standard textbooks on {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|Geographical Information Systems (GIS)}} are Longley et al. (2015) and Kresse and Danko (2012). Beyond these two books, there are many others on GIS and respective spatial data capture procedures (surveying, photogrammetry, and {{Term|remote sensing (glossary)|remote sensing}}) and management applications. Tomlinson (2019) and Peters (2012) as well as the online successor to this text book, [http://www.wiki.gis.com/wiki/index.php/System_Design_Strategies System Design Strategies], provide valuable insights into aspects of how to set up a GIS system. While Tomlinson (2019) looks more at the management perspective and processes of implementing a GIS, Peters (2012) focuses more on technical aspects.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Domain (glossary)|Domain}}-specific GIS applications are also documented in numerous textbooks. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|</del>Domain <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(glossary)|Domain}} </del>areas include agriculture and forestry, insurance economics and {{Term|Risk (glossary)|risk}} analysis, {{Term|Simulation (glossary)|simulation}} and environmental impact analysis, hydrology, archaeology, ecology, crime investigation and forensics, disaster management and first responders, marketing, municipalities and cadaster, land administration and urban planning, utility sectors, telecommunications, smart cities and military applications. The latter include Command and Control (C2) systems, or are even extended in Command, Control, Communications, Computers Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems. Generally speaking, wherever data about events is displayed or {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayed}}, processed and/or analyzed in a geospatial context, GIS technology is involved. The particular type of user interface doesn't matter. It could be a web interface, a desktop client, or a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet computer. To provide visualization of this data there must be spatial context for orientation, {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} such as digital topographic {{Term|Map (glossary)|maps}}, or {{Term|Geographic Imagery (glossary)|geographic imagery}}, {{Term|Digital Terrain Model (DTM) (glossary)|Digital Terrain Models (DTM)}}, etc. Beyond such classical {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, other types of data are also often used, such as meteorological and other environmental data.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Domain (glossary)|Domain}}-specific GIS applications are also documented in numerous textbooks. Domain areas include agriculture and forestry, insurance economics and {{Term|Risk (glossary)|risk}} analysis, {{Term|Simulation (glossary)|simulation}} and environmental impact analysis, hydrology, archaeology, ecology, crime investigation and forensics, disaster management and first responders, marketing, municipalities and cadaster, land administration and urban planning, utility sectors, telecommunications, smart cities and military applications. The latter include Command and Control (C2) systems, or are even extended in Command, Control, Communications, Computers Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems. Generally speaking, wherever data about events is displayed or {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayed}}, processed and/or analyzed in a geospatial context, GIS technology is involved. The particular type of user interface doesn't matter. It could be a web interface, a desktop client, or a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet computer. To provide visualization of this data there must be spatial context for orientation, {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} such as digital topographic {{Term|Map (glossary)|maps}}, or {{Term|Geographic Imagery (glossary)|geographic imagery}}, {{Term|Digital Terrain Model (DTM) (glossary)|Digital Terrain Models (DTM)}}, etc. Beyond such classical {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, other types of data are also often used, such as meteorological and other environmental data.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Interoperability (glossary)|Interoperability}} is of major concern in geospatial technology. The [http://www.opengeospatial.org Open Geospatial Consortium] (OGC) is probably the most relevant {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organization}} that deals with GIS and sensor systems interoperability. The OGC has published a dedicated set of {{Term|Interface (glossary)|interface}} [http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards specification standards] on their topics.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Term|Interoperability (glossary)|Interoperability}} is of major concern in geospatial technology. The [http://www.opengeospatial.org Open Geospatial Consortium] (OGC) is probably the most relevant {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organization}} that deals with GIS and sensor systems interoperability. The OGC has published a dedicated set of {{Term|Interface (glossary)|interface}} [http://www.opengeospatial.org/standards specification standards] on their topics.</div></td></tr>
</table>Apysterhttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=64660&oldid=prevApyster: /* Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography */2022-05-13T11:29:29Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography</span></span></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left diff-editfont-monospace" data-mw="interface">
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
<tr class="diff-title" lang="en">
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:29, 13 May 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l27" >Line 27:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 27:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Because people often rely on visual depictions more so than on verbal descriptions, the complicated surface of the Earth typically needs to be “pressed” onto a flat screen, or a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}} or chart like in traditional {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, even when it is a 3-dimensional perspective view on a 2D screen. Depending on the display scale, reducing from 3D to 2D cannot be achieved without somewhat or even significantly distorting the shape of the objects. Mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} and {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projections}} based on differential geometry provide the basics to achieve these goals (Grafararend et al. 2014). By carefully selecting an appropriate {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}}, different characteristics of land masses and applications can be emphasized. One example may be the difference between the classical Mercator projection that is used for nautical charts from the equator up to medium <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|geodetic latitude (glossary)|</del>latitudes<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>, and the Stereographic projection that is often used in aeronautics since the shortest distance between two {{Term|location (glossary)|locations}} there is a straight line. For the Mercator projection, a straight line is a {{Term|Rhumb Line (glossary)|rhumb line}}, i.e. the line of constant bearing which eases the use of a magnetic compass for steering a vessel (neglecting variations of magnetic declination on Earth). Here, the shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface (the {{Term|Geodesic or Geodesic Line (glossary)|geodesic}}) is a curved line on the chart whose curve is bent towards the pole of the respective hemisphere.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Because people often rely on visual depictions more so than on verbal descriptions, the complicated surface of the Earth typically needs to be “pressed” onto a flat screen, or a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}} or chart like in traditional {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, even when it is a 3-dimensional perspective view on a 2D screen. Depending on the display scale, reducing from 3D to 2D cannot be achieved without somewhat or even significantly distorting the shape of the objects. Mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} and {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projections}} based on differential geometry provide the basics to achieve these goals (Grafararend et al. 2014). By carefully selecting an appropriate {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}}, different characteristics of land masses and applications can be emphasized. One example may be the difference between the classical Mercator projection that is used for nautical charts from the equator up to medium latitudes, and the Stereographic projection that is often used in aeronautics since the shortest distance between two {{Term|location (glossary)|locations}} there is a straight line. For the Mercator projection, a straight line is a {{Term|Rhumb Line (glossary)|rhumb line}}, i.e. the line of constant bearing which eases the use of a magnetic compass for steering a vessel (neglecting variations of magnetic declination on Earth). Here, the shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface (the {{Term|Geodesic or Geodesic Line (glossary)|geodesic}}) is a curved line on the chart whose curve is bent towards the pole of the respective hemisphere.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayal}} of {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} is a fundamental functionality of {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}}, respective {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}} modules are generally included in GIS software packages. Beyond these purely projection-related aspects of visualizing {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}} offers rules and procedures for what to display and how to visualize {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}. Kraak and Ormeling (2020) show such data may be abstracted by symbols, lines, and areas, including what color and styles to apply to the graphical elements in a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}}, how to relate these to each other on a screen or paper map, how to generalize them, i.e. how to simplify their shape and depiction or even discard on display, when the scale of display is changed, etc.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayal}} of {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} is a fundamental functionality of {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}}, respective {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}} modules are generally included in GIS software packages. Beyond these purely projection-related aspects of visualizing {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}} offers rules and procedures for what to display and how to visualize {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}. Kraak and Ormeling (2020) show such data may be abstracted by symbols, lines, and areas, including what color and styles to apply to the graphical elements in a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}}, how to relate these to each other on a screen or paper map, how to generalize them, i.e. how to simplify their shape and depiction or even discard on display, when the scale of display is changed, etc.</div></td></tr>
</table>Apysterhttps://sandbox.sebokwiki.org/index.php?title=Overview_of_Geospatial/Geodetic_Engineering&diff=64659&oldid=prevApyster: /* Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications */2022-05-13T11:28:54Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications</span></span></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left diff-editfont-monospace" data-mw="interface">
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
<tr class="diff-title" lang="en">
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:28, 13 May 2022</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l23" >Line 23:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 23:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Geodesy and Geodetic Engineering for Providing the Frameworks for All Spatial Applications==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The above sections are application-oriented. However, at a more basic level, all numerical (coordinate-wise) descriptions of natural and man-made stationary and mobile objects, including satellites, need to be referenced to a {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}}. It may be a local stationary {{Term|Engineering Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|engineering coordinate reference system}}, a (moving) {{Term|Internal Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|internal coordinate reference system}} that is fixed to an object (in {{Term|Motion (glossary)|motion}}), a national spatial reference system, a regional spatial reference system, or even a global spatial reference system, e.g. that given by the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84, cf. National Imagery and Mapping Agency 2004), which is the {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}} in which GPS works. 2-dimensional ("horizontal") {{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|coordinates}} such as the combination of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|geodetic </del>latitude <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(glossary)|latitude}} </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|geodetic longitude (glossary)|</del>longitude<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}} </del>in a {{Term|Geodetic Coordinate System (glossary)|geodetic coordinate system}} are fairly straightforward because they are based mainly on mathematical assumptions. The shape of the Earth is approximated by an {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} on whose surface the {{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|coordinates}} are defined, and the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} is fixed to the Earth via a {{Term|Geodetic Datum (glossary)|geodetic datum}}/{{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Actually also the definition of the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} itself is part of the {{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Only little input from geophysics is needed (the localization of the rotation axis of the Earth). The third dimension, however, is mostly treated differently. {{Term|Height (glossary)|Heights}} in general are referenced to a reference surface. For {{Term|Ellipsoidal Height or Geodetic Height (glossary)|ellipsoidal heights}} this is the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}}, but since ellipsoidal heights can cause confusion as they do not consider the mass characteristics of the Earth with their distribution, it is more common to use {{Term|Height (glossary)|heights}} that are related to a {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|mean sea level (MSL)}} surface. The latter is mainly dependent on the (irregular!) distribution of masses on Earth and thus on their physical properties. The typical surface used for referencing these {{Term|Gravity-Related Height (glossary)|gravity-related heights}} is the so-called {{Term|Geoid (glossary)|geoid}} which may be approximated by {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|MSL}}. Beyond these Earth related aspects, however, there are also celestial {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} and {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} on other celestial bodies. Torge and Müller (2012) offers more information on these systems. Thus, geodetic engineering with its sub-disciplines of physical and mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} together with related engineering disciplines provide fundamental frameworks for various applications in science and technology including {{Term|System of Systems (SoS) (glossary)|systems of systems}}.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The above sections are application-oriented. However, at a more basic level, all numerical (coordinate-wise) descriptions of natural and man-made stationary and mobile objects, including satellites, need to be referenced to a {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}}. It may be a local stationary {{Term|Engineering Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|engineering coordinate reference system}}, a (moving) {{Term|Internal Coordinate Reference System (glossary)|internal coordinate reference system}} that is fixed to an object (in {{Term|Motion (glossary)|motion}}), a national spatial reference system, a regional spatial reference system, or even a global spatial reference system, e.g. that given by the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84, cf. National Imagery and Mapping Agency 2004), which is the {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference system}} in which GPS works. 2-dimensional ("horizontal") {{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|coordinates}} such as the combination of latitude and longitude in a {{Term|Geodetic Coordinate System (glossary)|geodetic coordinate system}} are fairly straightforward because they are based mainly on mathematical assumptions. The shape of the Earth is approximated by an {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} on whose surface the {{Term|Coordinate (glossary)|coordinates}} are defined, and the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} is fixed to the Earth via a {{Term|Geodetic Datum (glossary)|geodetic datum}}/{{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Actually also the definition of the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}} itself is part of the {{Term|Geodetic Reference Frame (glossary)|geodetic reference frame}}. Only little input from geophysics is needed (the localization of the rotation axis of the Earth). The third dimension, however, is mostly treated differently. {{Term|Height (glossary)|Heights}} in general are referenced to a reference surface. For {{Term|Ellipsoidal Height or Geodetic Height (glossary)|ellipsoidal heights}} this is the {{Term|Ellipsoid (glossary)|ellipsoid}}, but since ellipsoidal heights can cause confusion as they do not consider the mass characteristics of the Earth with their distribution, it is more common to use {{Term|Height (glossary)|heights}} that are related to a {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|mean sea level (MSL)}} surface. The latter is mainly dependent on the (irregular!) distribution of masses on Earth and thus on their physical properties. The typical surface used for referencing these {{Term|Gravity-Related Height (glossary)|gravity-related heights}} is the so-called {{Term|Geoid (glossary)|geoid}} which may be approximated by {{Term|Mean Sea Level(glossary)|MSL}}. Beyond these Earth related aspects, however, there are also celestial {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} and {{Term|Spatial Reference System (glossary)|spatial reference systems}} on other celestial bodies. Torge and Müller (2012) offers more information on these systems. Thus, geodetic engineering with its sub-disciplines of physical and mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} together with related engineering disciplines provide fundamental frameworks for various applications in science and technology including {{Term|System of Systems (SoS) (glossary)|systems of systems}}.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Portrayal of Geographic Data with Map Projections and Cartography==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l29" >Line 29:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 29:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Because people often rely on visual depictions more so than on verbal descriptions, the complicated surface of the Earth typically needs to be “pressed” onto a flat screen, or a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}} or chart like in traditional {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, even when it is a 3-dimensional perspective view on a 2D screen. Depending on the display scale, reducing from 3D to 2D cannot be achieved without somewhat or even significantly distorting the shape of the objects. Mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} and {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projections}} based on differential geometry provide the basics to achieve these goals (Grafararend et al. 2014). By carefully selecting an appropriate {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}}, different characteristics of land masses and applications can be emphasized. One example may be the difference between the classical Mercator projection that is used for nautical charts from the equator up to medium {{Term|geodetic latitude (glossary)|latitudes}}, and the Stereographic projection that is often used in aeronautics since the shortest distance between two {{Term|location (glossary)|locations}} there is a straight line. For the Mercator projection, a straight line is a {{Term|Rhumb Line (glossary)|rhumb line}}, i.e. the line of constant bearing which eases the use of a magnetic compass for steering a vessel (neglecting variations of magnetic declination on Earth). Here, the shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface (the {{Term|Geodesic or Geodesic Line (glossary)|geodesic}}) is a curved line on the chart whose curve is bent towards the pole of the respective hemisphere.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Because people often rely on visual depictions more so than on verbal descriptions, the complicated surface of the Earth typically needs to be “pressed” onto a flat screen, or a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}} or chart like in traditional {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}}, even when it is a 3-dimensional perspective view on a 2D screen. Depending on the display scale, reducing from 3D to 2D cannot be achieved without somewhat or even significantly distorting the shape of the objects. Mathematical {{Term|Geodesy (glossary)|geodesy}} and {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projections}} based on differential geometry provide the basics to achieve these goals (Grafararend et al. 2014). By carefully selecting an appropriate {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}}, different characteristics of land masses and applications can be emphasized. One example may be the difference between the classical Mercator projection that is used for nautical charts from the equator up to medium {{Term|geodetic latitude (glossary)|latitudes}}, and the Stereographic projection that is often used in aeronautics since the shortest distance between two {{Term|location (glossary)|locations}} there is a straight line. For the Mercator projection, a straight line is a {{Term|Rhumb Line (glossary)|rhumb line}}, i.e. the line of constant bearing which eases the use of a magnetic compass for steering a vessel (neglecting variations of magnetic declination on Earth). Here, the shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface (the {{Term|Geodesic or Geodesic Line (glossary)|geodesic}}) is a curved line on the chart whose curve is bent towards the pole of the respective hemisphere.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayal}} of {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} is a fundamental functionality of {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}}, respective {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}} modules are generally included in GIS software packages. Beyond these purely projection-related aspects of visualizing {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}} offers rules and procedures for what to display and how to visualize {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}. Kraak and Ormeling (2020) show such data may be abstracted by <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{Term|symbol (glossary)|</del>symbols<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">}}</del>, lines, and areas, including what color and styles to apply to the graphical elements in a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}}, how to relate these to each other on a screen or paper map, how to generalize them, i.e. how to simplify their shape and depiction or even discard on display, when the scale of display is changed, etc.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>As {{Term|Portrayal (glossary)|portrayal}} of {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}} is a fundamental functionality of {{Term|Geographic Information System (glossary)|GIS}}, respective {{Term|Map Projection (glossary)|map projection}} modules are generally included in GIS software packages. Beyond these purely projection-related aspects of visualizing {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}, {{Term|Cartography (glossary)|cartography}} offers rules and procedures for what to display and how to visualize {{Term|geographic data (glossary)|geographic data}}. Kraak and Ormeling (2020) show such data may be abstracted by symbols, lines, and areas, including what color and styles to apply to the graphical elements in a {{Term|Map (glossary)|map}}, how to relate these to each other on a screen or paper map, how to generalize them, i.e. how to simplify their shape and depiction or even discard on display, when the scale of display is changed, etc.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==References==</div></td></tr>
</table>Apyster