Application of Systems Engineering Standards

There are many Systems Engineering Standards that have evolved as indicated in Relevant Standards. In particular there are standards that can have an influence on Organizations and their Projects as indicated in Figure 1. Some pitfalls and good practices in utilizing standards where also identified in the article on Relevant Standards. In this article several additional factors related to the utilization of the standards are presented.

Standards and their Utilization

A standard is an agreed, repeatable way of doing something. It is a published document that contains a technical specification or other precise criteria designed to be used consistently as a rule, guideline, or definition. Standards help to make life simpler and to increase the reliability and the effectiveness of many goods and services we use. Standards are created by bringing together the experience and expertise of all interested parties such as the producers, sellers, buyers, users and regulators of a particular material, product, process or service.

Standards are designed for voluntary use and do not impose any regulations. However, laws and regulations may refer to certain standards and make compliance with them compulsory.

Further, organizations and their enterprises may choose to use standards as a means of providing uniformity in their operations and/or the products and services that they produce. The standard becomes a part of the “corporate” culture. In this regard, it is interesting to note that the ISO/IEC 15288 standard has provided such guidance and has provided a strong framework for systems engineers as well as systems engineering and business management, as forecast earlier by Arnold and Lawson (Arnold and Lawson 2004).

ISO directives (http://www.iso.org/directives) state the following:

A standard does not in itself impose any obligation upon anyone to follow it. However, such an obligation may be imposed, for example, by legislation or by a contract. In order to be able to claim compliance with a standard, the user (of the standard) needs to be able to identify the requirements he is obliged to satisfy. The user needs also to be able to distinguish these requirements from other provisions where a certain freedom of choice is possible. Clear rules for the use of verbal forms (including modal auxiliaries) are therefore essential.

Requirements, Recommendations and Permissions

In order to provide specificity, standards employ verb forms that convey requirements, recommendations, and permissions. For example, the ISO directives specifies the following verb usages:

-The word "shall" indicates requirements strictly to be followed in order to conform to the standard and from which no deviation is permitted.

-The word "should" indicates that among several possibilities one is recommended as particularly suitable, without mentioning or excluding others, or that a certain course of action is preferred but not necessarily required, or that (in the negative form) a certain possibility or course of action is deprecated but not prohibited.

-The word "may" indicates a course of action permissible within the limits of the standard.

The directive also indicates that standards should avoid use of "will", "must", etc.

Certification, Conformance and Compliance

In the context of the management system standards (ISO 9001:2000 (and ISO 9001:2008) or ISO 14001:2004), “certification” refers to the issuing of written assurance (the certificate) by an independent external body that it has audited a management system and verified that it conforms to the requirements specified in the standard.

Typically, other more specific systems engineering standards are not the subject of certification. They are self-imposed in order to improve uniformity of organization and enterprise operations or to improve the quality of products and services. Alternatively, they may be dictated by legislation, policy, or as part of a formal agreement between an acquirer and a supplier.

Conformance testing or type testing is testing to determine whether a product or system meets some specified standard that has been developed for efficiency or interoperability. To aid in this, many test procedures and test setups have been developed, either by the standard's maintainers or external organizations such as the Underwriters Laboratory (UL), specifically for testing conformance to standards.

Conformance testing is often performed by external organizations, which is sometimes the standards body itself, to give greater guarantees of compliance. Products tested in such a manner are then advertised as being certified by that external organization as complying with the standard.

Service providers, equipment manufacturers, and equipment suppliers rely on this data to ensure Quality of Service (QoS) through this conformance process.

Tailoring of Standards

Since the systems engineering standards provide guidelines, they are most often tailored to fit the needs of organizations and their enterprises in their operations and/or for the products and services that they provide as well as to provide agreement in a contract. Tailoring is a process described in an annex to the ISO/IEC 15288 standard.

The ISO/IEC 15288 addresses the issues of conformance, compliance, and tailoring as follows:

Full conformance - A claim of full conformance first declares the set of processes for which conformance is claimed. Full conformance is achieved by demonstrating that all of the requirements of the declared set of processes have been satisfied using the outcomes as evidence.

Tailored conformance - When this International Standard is used as a basis for establishing a set of processes that do not qualify for full conformance, the clauses of this International Standard are selected or modified in accordance with the tailoring process.

The tailored text, for which tailored conformance is claimed, is declared. Tailored conformance is achieved by demonstrating that requirements for the processes, as tailored, have been satisfied using the outcomes as evidence.

When the standard is used to help develop an agreement between an acquirer and a supplier, clauses of the standard can be selected for incorporation in the agreement with or without modification. In this case, it is more appropriate for the acquirer and supplier to claim compliance with the agreement than conformance with the standard.

Any organization (for example, national, industrial association, company) imposing the standard, as a condition of trade, should specify and make public the minimum set of required processes, activities, and tasks, which constitute suppliers' conformance with the standard.

References

This article relies heavily on limited sources. Reviewers are requested to identify additional sources.

Citations

Arnold, S., and H. Lawson. 2004. Viewing systems from a business management perspective. Systems Engineering, 7 (3): 229.

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Signatures

--Dholwell 20:22, 1 September 2011 (UTC) core edit. needs a sharper image.