Difference between revisions of "Service Life Extension"

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Product and service life extension involves continued usage of a product and service beyond its original [[Design Life (glossary)|design life (glossary)]].   Product and service life extension involves assessing the risks and the [[Life Cycle Cost (LCC) (glossary)|life cycle cost (LCC) (glossary)]] of continuing the use of the product or service versus the cost of a replacement system.
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'''''Lead Author:''''' ''William Stiffler'', '''''Contributing Author:''''' ''Brian Wells''
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Product and service life extension involves continued use of a product and/or service beyond its original {{Term|Design Life (glossary)|design life}}. Product and service life extension involves assessing the risks and the {{Term|Life Cycle Cost (LCC) (glossary)|life cycle cost}} (LCC) of continuing the use of the product or service versus the cost of a replacement system.
  
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[[Service Life Extension (SLE) (glossary)|Service life extension (SLE) (glossary)]] emphasizes reliability upgrades and component replacement, or rebuilding of the system, to delay the system’s entry into wear-out status due to prohibitively expensive sustainment, or reliability, safety, and performance requirements that can no longer be met.  The goal is typically to return the system to as near new condition as possible, consistent with the economic constraints of the program.
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{{Term|Service Life Extension (SLE) (glossary)|Service life extension}} (SLE) emphasizes reliability upgrades and component replacement or rebuilding of the system to delay the system’s entry into ''wear-out'' status due to issues such as expensive sustainment, reliability, safety, and/or performance requirements that can no longer be met.  The goal is typically to return the system to as new a condition as possible while remaining consistent with the economic constraints of the program.
  
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SLE is regarded as an environmentally friendly way to relieve rampant waste by prolonging the use-life of retiring products and preventing them from being discarded too early with unused value. However, challenged by fast-changing technology and physical deterioration, a major concern in planning a product SLE is how fit a product might be to serve an extra life.
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SLE is regarded as an environmentally friendly way to relieve rampant waste by prolonging the {{Term|Useful life (glossary)|useful life}} of retiring products and preventing them from being discarded too early when they still have unused value. However, challenged by fast-changing technology and physical deterioration, a major concern in planning a product SLE is considering to what degree a product or service is fit to have its life extended.
  
 
==Topic Overview==
 
==Topic Overview==
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SLE is typically required in the following circumstances:
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* The system no longer meets the system performance or reliability requirements.
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* The cost of operation and maintenance exceeds the cost of SLE, or the available budgets.
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* Parts are no longer available for repair and maintenance.
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* Operation of the system violates rules or regulations, such as environmental or safety regulations.
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* Parts of the system are about to reach their operations life limits, which will result in the issue listed above occurring.
  
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Key factors and questions that must be considered by the systems engineer during service life extension include:
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It is best if systems engineers use a proactive approach that predicts ahead, so that SLE can be accomplished before the system fails to meet its requirements and before the operations and support costs rise above acceptable limits.
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*Current life cycle costs of the system,
 
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*Design life and expected remaining useful life of the system,
 
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*Software maintenance,
 
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*Configuration Management, 
 
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*Warranty policy,
 
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*Availability of parts, subsystems, and manufacturing sources, and  
 
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*Availability of system documentation to support life extension.
 
  
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System [[Design Life (glossary)|design life (glossary)]] is a major consideration for service life extension.  System design life parameters are established early on during the system design phase and include key assumptions involving safety limits and material life.  Safety limits and the properties of material aging are critical to defining system life extension.  Jackson (2007, 91-108) emphasizes that architecting for system resiliency increases system life. Jackson points out that a system can be architected to withstand internal and external disruptions. Systems that age through use, such as aircraft, bridges, and nuclear power plants, require periodic inspection to ascertain the degree of aging and fatigue. The results of inspections determine the need for actions to extend the product life (Elliot, Chen, and Swanekamp 1998, section 6.5).
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Key factors that must be considered by the systems engineer during service life extension include:
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* current life cycle costs of the system  
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* design life and expected remaining useful life of the system
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* software maintenance
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* configuration management
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* warranty policy
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* availability of parts, subsystems, and manufacturing sources
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* availability of system documentation to support life extension
  
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Software maintenance is a critical aspect of service life extension. The [[Legacy System (glossary)|legacy system (glossary)]] may include multiple computer resources that have been in operation for a period of many years, with functions that are essential and must not be disrupted during the upgrade or integration process.  Typically, legacy systems include a computer resource or application software program that continues to be used because the cost of replacing or redesigning is prohibitive. The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has addressed the need for service life extension of software products and services and provide useful guidance in the on-line library for Software Product Lines (SEI 2010, 1).  
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System design life is a major consideration for SLE. System design life parameters are established early on during the system design phase and include key assumptions involving safety limits and material life.  Safety limits and the properties of material aging are critical to defining system life extension. Jackson emphasizes the importance of architecting for system resiliency in increasing system life. He also points out that a system can be architected to withstand internal and external disruptions (2007, 91-108). Systems that age through use, such as aircraft, bridges, and nuclear power plants, require periodic inspection to ascertain the degree of aging and fatigue. The results of inspections determine the need for actions to extend the product life (Elliot, Chen, and Swanekamp 1998, sec. 6.5).
  
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Systems engineers have found that service life can be extended through the proper selection of materials, for example those that have special coatings. Transportation system elements such as highway bridges and rail systems are being designed for extended service life by using special epoxy-coated steel (Brown, Weyers, Spinkel. 2006, 13).
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Software maintenance is a critical aspect of SLE. The {{Term|Legacy System (glossary)|legacy system}} may include multiple computer resources that have been in operation for a period of many years and have essential functions that must not be disrupted during the upgrade or integration process. Typically, legacy systems include a computer resource or application software program that continues to be used because the cost of replacing or redesigning it is prohibitive. The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has addressed the need for SLE of software products and services and provides useful guidance in the online library for Software Product Lines (SEI 2010, 1). (See [[Systems Engineering and Software Engineering]] for additional discussion of software engineering (SwE) factors to consider.)
  
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Diminishing manufacturing sources and diminishing suppliers need to be addressed early in the service life extension process. Livingston (2010) in ''Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices'' provides a method for addressing product life extension when the sources of supply are an issue.  He addresses the product life cycle model and describes a variety of methods that can be applied during system design to minimize the impact of future component obsolescence issues.
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Systems engineers have found that service life can be extended through the proper selection of materials. For example, transportation system elements such as highway bridges and rail systems are being designed for extended service life by using special epoxy-coated steel (Brown, Weyers, and Spinkel 2006, 13). Diminishing manufacturing sources and diminishing suppliers need to be addressed early in the SLE process. Livingston (2010) in ''Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices'' provides a method for addressing product life extension when the sources of supply are an issue.  He addresses the product life cycle model and describes a variety of methods that can be applied during system design to minimize the impact of future component obsolescence issues.
  
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During product and service life extension, it is often necessary to revisit & challenge the assumptions behind any previous lifecycle cost analysis (and constituent analyses) to evaluate their continued validity / applicability early in the service life extension process.
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During product and service life extension, it is often necessary to revisit and challenge the assumptions behind any previous life cycle cost analysis (and constituent analyses) to evaluate their continued validity and/or applicability early in the process.
  
 
==Application to Product Systems==
 
==Application to Product Systems==
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Product life extension requires an analysis of the LCC associated with continued use of the existing product versus the cost of a replacement product. In the [[INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook]], Chapter 3.3 points out that the support stage includes service life extension (2012). Chapter 7 provides a framework to determine if a product’s life should be extended (INCOSE 2012). In [[Systems Engineering and Analysis]], Chapter 17 provides an LCC methodology and emphasizes the analysis of different alternatives before deciding on product life extension (Blanchard and Fabrycky 2011).
  
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Product life extension requires an analysis of the life cycle cost associated with continued use of the existing product versus the cost of a replacement product. The [[INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook]] v.3.2.1, Chapter 3.3 Life-Cycle stages points out the support stage includes service life extension.  Chapter 7 Life cycle cost (LCC) model provides a framework to determine if a product’s life should be extended.  Blanchard & Fabrycky’s 5th edition of [[Systems Engineering and Analysis]], chapter 17, provides a Life Cycle Cost methodology and emphasis the analysis of different alternatives before making a decision on product life extension.  
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For military systems, service life extension is considered a subset of modification or modernization. Military systems use well-developed and detailed guidance for SLE programs (SLEP). The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics (OSD AT&L) provides an online reference for policies, procedures, planning guidance, and whitepapers for military product service life extension (DAU 2011). Continuous military system modernization is a process by which state-of-the-art technologies are inserted continuously into weapon systems to increase reliability, lower sustainment costs, and increase the war fighting capability of a military system to meet evolving customer requirements throughout an indefinite service life.
  
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For military systems, service life extension is considered a subset of modification or modernization.  Military systems use well developed and detailed guidance for service life extensions (Service Life Extension Programs – SLEP).  Office of the under Secretary of Defense AT&L provides an on-line reference (Defense Acquisition University, https://www.dau.mil )for policies, procedures, planning guidance and whitepapers for military product serviced life extension. Continuous military system modernization is a process by which state-of-the-art technologies are inserted continuously into weapon systems to increase reliability, lower sustainment costs, and increase the war fighting capability of a system to meet evolving customer requirements throughout an indefinite service life.
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Aircraft service life can be extended by reducing the dynamic loads which lead to structural fatigue.  The Boeing B-52 military aircraft and the Boeing 737 commercial aircraft are prime examples of system life extension. The B-52 was first fielded in 1955 and the Boeing 737 has been fielded since 1967; both aircraft are still in use today.
  
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Aircraft service life can be extended by reducing the dynamic loads which lead to structural fatigue.  The Boeing B-52 military aircraft and the Boeing 737 commercial aircraft are prime examples of system life extension.  The B-52 aircraft was first fielded in 1955 and continues to be operated in 2011.  The Boeing 737 passenger aircraft has been fielded since 1967 and continues operation today.
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For nuclear reactors, system safety is the most important precondition for service life extension.  System safety must be maintained while extending the service life (Paks 2010).  Built-in tests, automated fault reporting and prognostics, analysis of failure modes, and the detection of early signs of wear and aging may be applied to predict the time when maintenance actions will be required to extend the service life of the product. (For additional discussion, see [[Safety Engineering]].)
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For nuclear reactors, system safety is the most important precondition for the service life extension.  The system safety must be maintained while extending the service life (Paks, 2010).  Built-in test, automated fault reporting and prognostics, analysis of failure modes, and the detection of early signs of wear and aging may be applied to predict the time when maintenance actions will be required to extend the service life of the product.
 
  
 
==Application to Service Systems==
 
==Application to Service Systems==
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For systems that provide services to a larger consumer base, SLE involves continued delivery of the service without disrupting consumer use.  This involves capital investment and financial planning, as well as a phased deployment of changes. Examples of these concepts can be seen in transportation systems, water treatment facilities, energy generation and delivery systems, and the health care industry.  As new technologies are introduced, service delivery can be improved while reducing LCC's.  Service systems must continuously assess delivery costs based upon the use of newer technologies. 
  
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For systems that provide services to a larger consumer base, service life extension involves continued delivery of the service to end consumers without any disruption.  Service life extension involves capital investment and financial planning.  Service life extension involves phased deployment of changes.  Examples of this are transportation systems, water treatment facilities, energy generation and delivery systems, and the health care industry. 
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Water handling systems provide a good example of a service system that undergoes life extension.  Water handling systems have been in existence since early civilization.  Since water handling systems are in use as long as a site is occupied (e.g., the Roman aqueducts) and upgrades are required as the population expands, such systems are a good example of "systems that live forever."  For example, there are still U.S. water systems that use a few wooden pipes since there has been no reason to replace them.  Water system life extension must deal with the issue of water quality and the capacity for future users (Mays 2000). Water quality requirements can be further understood from the AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices (AWWA 2010).
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As new technologies are introduced, service delivery can be improved while reducing life cycle costs.  Service systems have to continuously assess delivery costs based upon the use of newer technologies. 
 
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Water handling systems provide a good example of a service system that undergoes life extension.  Water handling systems have been in existence since early civilization.  Since water handling systems are in use as long as a site is occupied (e.g. the Roman aqueducts), and upgrades are required as population expands, such systems are a good example of "systems that live forever."  For example, there are still US water systems that use a few wooden pipes, since there has been no reason to replace them.  Water system life extension must deal with the issue of water quality and capacity for future users (Mays, 2000).   Water quality requirements can be further understood from the (AWWA, 2010).
 
  
 
==Application to Enterprises==
 
==Application to Enterprises==
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Service life extension of a large enterprise such as NASA’s national space transportation system involves service life extension on the elements of the enterprise such as the space vehicle (Shuttle), ground processing systems for launch operations and mission control, and space-based communication systems that support space vehicle tracking and status monitoring.  Service life extension of an enterprise requires a holistic look across the entire enterprise.  A balanced approach is required to address the cost of operating older system components versus the cost required to implement service life improvements.
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SLE of a large enterprise, such as the National Astronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) national space transportation system, involves SLE on the elements of the enterprise, such as the space vehicle (shuttle), ground processing systems for launch operations and mission control, and space-based communication systems that support space vehicle tracking and status monitoring.  SLE of an enterprise requires a {{Term|holism (glossary)|holistic}} look across the entire enterprise.  A balanced approach is required to address the cost of operating older system components versus the cost required to implement service life improvements.
  
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Large enterprise system such as oil and natural gas reservoirs which span large geographical areas can use advance technology to increase service life.  The economic extraction of natural resources from previously established reservoirs can extend the system life of oil and natural gas reservoirs. Life extension methods include pumping special liquids or gases into the reservoir to push the remaining oil or natural gas to the surface for extraction (Office of Natural Gas & Oil Technology).
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Large enterprise systems, such as oil and natural gas reservoirs which span broad geographical areas, can use advanced technology to increase their service life.  The economic extraction of oil and natural gas resources from previously established reservoirs can extend their system life. One such life extension method is to pump special liquids or gases into the reservoir to push the remaining oil or natural gas to the surface for extraction (Office of Natural Gas & Oil Technology 1999).
  
 
==Other Topics==
 
==Other Topics==
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Commercial product developers have been required to retain information for extended periods of time after the last operational product or unit leaves active service (for up to twenty years).  Regulatory requirements should be considered when extending service life (INCOSE 2012).
  
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Commercial product developers have been required to retain information for extended periods of time after the last operational product or unit leaves active service (for up to twenty years).  Regulatory requirements should be considered when extending service life (INCOSE 2011).
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==Practical Considerations==
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The cost associated with life extension is one of the main inputs in the decision to extend service life of a product or a service. The cost of SLE must be compared to the cost of developing and deploying a new system, as well as the functional utility the user will obtain from each of the alternatives.  It is often the case that the funding required for SLE of large complex systems is spread over several fiscal planning cycles and is therefore subject to changes in attitude by the elected officials that appropriate the funding.
  
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==Practical Considerations==
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The challenges with upgrading a system while it is still being used, which is often the case with SLE, must be understood and planned to avoid serious disruptions to the services the systems provide.
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The cost associated with life extension is one of the main inputs into the decision to extend service life of a product or a service.  Often is the case that the funding required for service life extension of large complex systems span several fiscal planning cycles and is therefore subject to changes in attitude by the elected officials the appropriate the funding.  
 
  
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Any SLE must also consider the obsolescence of the systems parts, (e.g., software, amount of system redesign that is required to eliminate the obsolete parts, etc.).
  
 
==References==  
 
==References==  
  
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===Works Cited===
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AWWA. 2010. “AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO. Accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834.
  
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===Citations===
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Blanchard, B.S. and W.J. Fabrycky. 2011. ''[[Systems Engineering and Analysis]]'', 5th ed. Prentice-Hall International series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
  
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AWWA. 2010. “AWWA manuals of water supply practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO, accessed August 5, 2010.  http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834
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Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service Life Extension of Virginia Bridge Decks afforded by Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement.” ''Journal of ASTM International (JAI),'' 3(2): 13.  
  
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Blanchard and Fabrycky. 2006. ''Systems Engineering and Analysis'', 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall International Series.
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DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.
  
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Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service life extension of Virginia bridge decks afforded by epoxy-coated reinforcement.” ''Journal of ASTM International'' (JAI) 3 (2): 13.
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Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R.C. Swanekamp. 1998. "Section 6.5" in ''Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering.'' New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill.
  
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DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.
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INCOSE. 2012. ''[[INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook|Systems Engineering Handbook]]: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities'', version 3.2.2. San Diego, CA, USA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.2.
  
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Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R. C. Swanekamp. 1998. ''Standard handbook of powerplant engineering''. New York: McGraw Hill, section 6.5.
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Jackson. 2007. “[[A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions]].” ''Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science.'' 11(2).
  
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INCOSE. 2011.   ''Systems Engineering Handbook  A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities''. v3.2.1.2011. San Diego, CA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.1
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Livingston, H. 2010. “GEB1: Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices.” McClellan, CA: Defense MicroElectronics Activity (DMEA)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).  
  
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Jackson. 2007. “A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions.” ''Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science''. 11 (2): '''PAGE NUMBERS NEEDED'''.
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Mays, L. (ed). 2000. "Chapter 3" in ''Water Distribution Systems Handbook.'' New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
  
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Livingston, H. 2010. GEB1: ''Diminishing manufacturing sources and material shortages (DMSMS) management practices.'' McClellan, CA: Defense MicroElectronics Activity (DMEA)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).
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Office of Natural Gas and Oil Technology. 1999. ''Reservoir LIFE Extension Program: Encouraging Production of Remaining Oil and Gas.'' Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Department of Energy (DoE).  
  
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Mays, L., ed. 2000. ''Water distribution systems handbook''. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, chapter 3.
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Paks Nuclear Power Plant. 2010. “Paks Nuclear Power Plant: Service Life Extension.” In Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Ltd. Hungary, accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://paksnuclearpowerplant.com/service-life-extension.
  
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Office of Natural Gas and Oil Technology. 1999. ''Reservoir LIFE extension program: Encouraging production of remaining oil and gas.'' Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Engery (DoE),
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SEI. 2010. “Software Engineering Institute.” In Software Engineering Institute (SEI)/Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). Pittsburgh, PA, accessed August 5, 2010. http://www.sei.cmu.edu.
  
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Paks Nuclear Power Plant. 2010. “Paks nuclear power plant: Service life extension.” In Paks Nuclear Power Plant Ltd., Hungary, accessed August 5, 2010. http://paksnuclearpowerplant.com/service-life-extension.
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===Primary References===
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Blanchard, B.S., and W.J. Fabrycky. 2011. ''[[Systems Engineering and Analysis]]'', 5th ed. Prentice-Hall International series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.
  
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SEI. 2010. “Software engineering institute.” In Software Engineering Institute (SEI)/Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). Pittsburgh, PA, accessed August 5, 2010. http://www.sei.cmu.edu.
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Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. ''[[Systems Engineering Guidebook for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)]],'' version 1.1. Sacramento, CA, USA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research and Innovation and U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1.
  
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===Primary References===
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INCOSE. 2012. ''[[INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook|Systems Engineering Handbook]]: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities'', version 3.2.2. San Diego, CA, USA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.2.
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Blanchard and Fabrycky. 2006. ''[[Systems Engineering and Analysis]],'' 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall International Series.
 
  
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Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. ''[[Systems Engineering Guidebook for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)]].'' Sacramento, CA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research and Innovation and U.S. Department of Defense (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1.
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Jackson. 2007. “[[A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions]].” ''Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science.'' 11(2).
  
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INCOSE. 2011. ''[[INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook|Systems Engineering Handbook]]: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities,'' version 3.2.1. San Diego, CA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.1.
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OUSD(AT&L). 2011. “[[Logistics and Materiel Readiness]] On-line policies, procedures, and planning references.” Arlington, VA, USA: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Transportation and Logistics (OUSD(AT&L). http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/.
  
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Jackson. 2007. “[[A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions]].” ''Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science,'' 11 (2).
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Seacord, R.C., D. Plakosh, and G.A. Lewis. 2003. ''[[Modernizing Legacy Systems]]: Software Technologies, Engineering Processes, and Business Practices''. Boston, MA, USA: Pearson Education.
  
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OUSD(AT&L). 2010. “[[Logistics and Materiel Readiness]]. On-line policies, procedures, and planning references.”  Arlington, VA: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Aquisition, Transportation and Logistics (OUSD(AT&L)). http://www.acq.osd.mil/log.
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===Additional References===
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AWWA. 2010. “AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO, USA. Accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834.
  
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Seacord R.C., D. Plakosh, and G.A. Lewis. 2003. ''[[Modernizing Legacy Systems]].'' Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.
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Blanchard, B.S. 2010. ''Logistics engineering and management'', 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall, 341-342.
  
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===Additional References===
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Braunstein, A. 2007. “Balancing Hardware End-of-Life Costs and Responsibilities.” Westport, CT, USA: Experture Group, ETS 07-12-18.
  
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AWWA. 2010. “AWWA manuals of water supply practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO, accessed August 5, 2010. http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834.
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Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service Life Extension of Virginia Bridge Decks afforded by Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement.” ''Journal of ASTM International (JAI),'' 3(2): 13.  
  
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Blanchard, B. S. 2010. ''Logistics engineering and management,'' 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 341-342.
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Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. ''Systems engineering guidebook for ITS,'' version 1.1. Sacramento, CA, USA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research & Innovation/U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1: 278, 101-103, 107.
  
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Braunstein, A. 2007. ''Balancing hardware end-of-life costs and responsibilities.'' Westport, CT: Experture Group, ETS 07-12-18.  
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Casetta, E. 2001. ''Transportation Systems Engineering: Theory and methods''. New York, NY, USA: Kluwer Publishers Academic, Springer.  
  
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Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service life extension of virginia bridge decks afforded by epoxy-coated reinforcement.” ''Journal of ASTM International'' (JAI) 3 (2): 13.  
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DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.
  
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Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. ''Systems engineering guidebook for ITS,'' version 1.1. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research & Innovation/U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1: 278, 101-103, 107.
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DLA. 2010. “Defense logistics agency disposition services.” In Defense Logistics Agency (DLA)/U.S. Department of Defense [database online]. Battle Creek, MI, USA, accessed June 19 2010: 5. Available at: http://www.dtc.dla.mil.
  
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Casetta, E. 2001. ''Transportation systems engineering: Theory and methods.'' New York: Kluwer Publishers Academic, Springer.  
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Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R.C. Swanekamp. 1998. "Section 6.5" in ''Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering.'' New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill.
  
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DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.
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FAA. 2006. "Section 4.1" in “Systems Engineering Manual.” Washington, DC, USA: US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
  
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DLA. 2010. “Defense logistics agency disposition services.” In Defense Logistics Agency (DLA)/U.S. Department of Defense. Battle Creek, MI, accessed June 19 2010: 5.  http://www.dtc.dla.mil.
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FCC. 2009. “Radio and Television Broadcast Rules.” Washington, DC, USA: US Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 47 CFR Part 73, FCC Rule 09-19: 11299-11318.
  
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Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R. C. Swanekamp. 1998. ''Standard handbook of powerplant engineering.'' New York: McGraw Hill, section 6.5.
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Finlayson, B. and B. Herdlick. 2008. ''Systems Engineering of Deployed Systems.'' Baltimore, MD, USA: Johns Hopkins University: 28.  
  
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FAA. 2006. “Systems engineering manual.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), section 4.1
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Gehring, G., D. Lindemuth, and W.T. Young. 2004. “Break Reduction/Life extension Program for CAST and Ductile Iron Water Mains.” Paper presented at NO-DIG 2004, Conference of the North American Society for Trenchless Technology (NASTT), March 22-24, New Orleans, LA, USA.  
  
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FCC. 2009. “Radio and television broadcast rules.” Washington, D.C.: U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 47 CFR Part 73, FCC Rule 09-19: 11299-11318.
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Hovinga, M.N. and G.J. Nakoneczny. 2000. “Standard Recommendations for Pressure Part Inspection during a Boiler Life Extension Program.” Paper presented at ICOLM (International Conference on Life Management and Life Extension of Power Plant), May, Xi’an, P.R. China.  
  
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Finlayson, B., and B. Herdlick. 2008. ''Systems engineering of deployed systems.'' Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University: p28.  
+
IEC. 2007. ''Obsolescence Management - Application Guide'', ed 1.0. Geneva, Switzerland: International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 62302.  
  
−
Gehring, G., D. Lindemuth, and W. T. Young. 2004. “Break Reduction/Life extension program for CAST and ductile iron water mains.” Paper presented at NO-DIG, Conference of the North American Society for Trenchless Technology (NASTT), March 22-24, New Orleans, LA.  
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ISO/IEC. 2003. “Industrial Automation Systems Integration-Integration of Life-Cycle Data for Process Plants including Oil, Gas Production Facilities.” Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).  
  
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ISO/IEC. 1997. “Systems Engineering for Commercial Aircraft.” Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.  
  
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Koopman, P. 1999. “Life Cycle Considerations.” In Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). Pittsburgh, PA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/des_s99/life_cycle/index.html.
  
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L3 Communications. 2010. “Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).” Newport News, VA, USA: L3 Communications, Flight International Aviation LLC.  
  
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Livingston, H. 2010. “GEB1: Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices.” McClellan, CA: Defense MicroElectronics Activity (DMEA)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).  
  
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Mays, L. (ed). 2000. "Chapter 3" in ''Water Distribution Systems Handbook.'' New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
  
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MDIT. 2008. ''System Maintenance Guidebook (SMG),'' version 1.1: A companion to the systems engineering methodology (SEM) of the state unified information technology environment (SUITE). MI, USA: Michigan Department of Information Technology (MDIT), DOE G 200: 38.  
  
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<center>[[Service Life Management|< Previous Article]] | [[System Maintenance|Parent Article]] | [[Capability Updates, Upgrades, and Modernization|Next Article >]]</center>
  
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Sukamto, S. 2003. “Plant aging and life extention program at Arun LNG Plant Lhokseumawe, North Aceh, Indonesia.” Paper presented at 22nd Annual World Gas Conference, June 1-5, Tokyo, Japan.
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<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.10, released 06 May 2024'''</center>
  
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==Signatures==
 
 
[[Category: Part 3]][[Category:Topic]]
 
[[Category: Part 3]][[Category:Topic]]
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[[Category:Product and Service Life Management]]

Latest revision as of 22:40, 2 May 2024

Lead Author: William Stiffler, Contributing Author: Brian Wells

Product and service life extension involves continued use of a product and/or service beyond its original design lifedesign life. Product and service life extension involves assessing the risks and the life cycle costlife cycle cost (LCC) of continuing the use of the product or service versus the cost of a replacement system.

Service life extensionService life extension (SLE) emphasizes reliability upgrades and component replacement or rebuilding of the system to delay the system’s entry into wear-out status due to issues such as expensive sustainment, reliability, safety, and/or performance requirements that can no longer be met. The goal is typically to return the system to as new a condition as possible while remaining consistent with the economic constraints of the program.

SLE is regarded as an environmentally friendly way to relieve rampant waste by prolonging the useful lifeuseful life of retiring products and preventing them from being discarded too early when they still have unused value. However, challenged by fast-changing technology and physical deterioration, a major concern in planning a product SLE is considering to what degree a product or service is fit to have its life extended.

Topic Overview

SLE is typically required in the following circumstances:

  • The system no longer meets the system performance or reliability requirements.
  • The cost of operation and maintenance exceeds the cost of SLE, or the available budgets.
  • Parts are no longer available for repair and maintenance.
  • Operation of the system violates rules or regulations, such as environmental or safety regulations.
  • Parts of the system are about to reach their operations life limits, which will result in the issue listed above occurring.

It is best if systems engineers use a proactive approach that predicts ahead, so that SLE can be accomplished before the system fails to meet its requirements and before the operations and support costs rise above acceptable limits.

Key factors that must be considered by the systems engineer during service life extension include:

  • current life cycle costs of the system
  • design life and expected remaining useful life of the system
  • software maintenance
  • configuration management
  • warranty policy
  • availability of parts, subsystems, and manufacturing sources
  • availability of system documentation to support life extension

System design life is a major consideration for SLE. System design life parameters are established early on during the system design phase and include key assumptions involving safety limits and material life. Safety limits and the properties of material aging are critical to defining system life extension. Jackson emphasizes the importance of architecting for system resiliency in increasing system life. He also points out that a system can be architected to withstand internal and external disruptions (2007, 91-108). Systems that age through use, such as aircraft, bridges, and nuclear power plants, require periodic inspection to ascertain the degree of aging and fatigue. The results of inspections determine the need for actions to extend the product life (Elliot, Chen, and Swanekamp 1998, sec. 6.5).

Software maintenance is a critical aspect of SLE. The legacy systemlegacy system may include multiple computer resources that have been in operation for a period of many years and have essential functions that must not be disrupted during the upgrade or integration process. Typically, legacy systems include a computer resource or application software program that continues to be used because the cost of replacing or redesigning it is prohibitive. The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has addressed the need for SLE of software products and services and provides useful guidance in the online library for Software Product Lines (SEI 2010, 1). (See Systems Engineering and Software Engineering for additional discussion of software engineering (SwE) factors to consider.)

Systems engineers have found that service life can be extended through the proper selection of materials. For example, transportation system elements such as highway bridges and rail systems are being designed for extended service life by using special epoxy-coated steel (Brown, Weyers, and Spinkel 2006, 13). Diminishing manufacturing sources and diminishing suppliers need to be addressed early in the SLE process. Livingston (2010) in Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices provides a method for addressing product life extension when the sources of supply are an issue. He addresses the product life cycle model and describes a variety of methods that can be applied during system design to minimize the impact of future component obsolescence issues.

During product and service life extension, it is often necessary to revisit and challenge the assumptions behind any previous life cycle cost analysis (and constituent analyses) to evaluate their continued validity and/or applicability early in the process.

Application to Product Systems

Product life extension requires an analysis of the LCC associated with continued use of the existing product versus the cost of a replacement product. In the INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook, Chapter 3.3 points out that the support stage includes service life extension (2012). Chapter 7 provides a framework to determine if a product’s life should be extended (INCOSE 2012). In Systems Engineering and Analysis, Chapter 17 provides an LCC methodology and emphasizes the analysis of different alternatives before deciding on product life extension (Blanchard and Fabrycky 2011).

For military systems, service life extension is considered a subset of modification or modernization. Military systems use well-developed and detailed guidance for SLE programs (SLEP). The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics (OSD AT&L) provides an online reference for policies, procedures, planning guidance, and whitepapers for military product service life extension (DAU 2011). Continuous military system modernization is a process by which state-of-the-art technologies are inserted continuously into weapon systems to increase reliability, lower sustainment costs, and increase the war fighting capability of a military system to meet evolving customer requirements throughout an indefinite service life.

Aircraft service life can be extended by reducing the dynamic loads which lead to structural fatigue. The Boeing B-52 military aircraft and the Boeing 737 commercial aircraft are prime examples of system life extension. The B-52 was first fielded in 1955 and the Boeing 737 has been fielded since 1967; both aircraft are still in use today.

For nuclear reactors, system safety is the most important precondition for service life extension. System safety must be maintained while extending the service life (Paks 2010). Built-in tests, automated fault reporting and prognostics, analysis of failure modes, and the detection of early signs of wear and aging may be applied to predict the time when maintenance actions will be required to extend the service life of the product. (For additional discussion, see Safety Engineering.)

Application to Service Systems

For systems that provide services to a larger consumer base, SLE involves continued delivery of the service without disrupting consumer use. This involves capital investment and financial planning, as well as a phased deployment of changes. Examples of these concepts can be seen in transportation systems, water treatment facilities, energy generation and delivery systems, and the health care industry. As new technologies are introduced, service delivery can be improved while reducing LCC's. Service systems must continuously assess delivery costs based upon the use of newer technologies.

Water handling systems provide a good example of a service system that undergoes life extension. Water handling systems have been in existence since early civilization. Since water handling systems are in use as long as a site is occupied (e.g., the Roman aqueducts) and upgrades are required as the population expands, such systems are a good example of "systems that live forever." For example, there are still U.S. water systems that use a few wooden pipes since there has been no reason to replace them. Water system life extension must deal with the issue of water quality and the capacity for future users (Mays 2000). Water quality requirements can be further understood from the AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices (AWWA 2010).

Application to Enterprises

SLE of a large enterprise, such as the National Astronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) national space transportation system, involves SLE on the elements of the enterprise, such as the space vehicle (shuttle), ground processing systems for launch operations and mission control, and space-based communication systems that support space vehicle tracking and status monitoring. SLE of an enterprise requires a holisticholistic look across the entire enterprise. A balanced approach is required to address the cost of operating older system components versus the cost required to implement service life improvements.

Large enterprise systems, such as oil and natural gas reservoirs which span broad geographical areas, can use advanced technology to increase their service life. The economic extraction of oil and natural gas resources from previously established reservoirs can extend their system life. One such life extension method is to pump special liquids or gases into the reservoir to push the remaining oil or natural gas to the surface for extraction (Office of Natural Gas & Oil Technology 1999).

Other Topics

Commercial product developers have been required to retain information for extended periods of time after the last operational product or unit leaves active service (for up to twenty years). Regulatory requirements should be considered when extending service life (INCOSE 2012).

Practical Considerations

The cost associated with life extension is one of the main inputs in the decision to extend service life of a product or a service. The cost of SLE must be compared to the cost of developing and deploying a new system, as well as the functional utility the user will obtain from each of the alternatives. It is often the case that the funding required for SLE of large complex systems is spread over several fiscal planning cycles and is therefore subject to changes in attitude by the elected officials that appropriate the funding.

The challenges with upgrading a system while it is still being used, which is often the case with SLE, must be understood and planned to avoid serious disruptions to the services the systems provide.

Any SLE must also consider the obsolescence of the systems parts, (e.g., software, amount of system redesign that is required to eliminate the obsolete parts, etc.).

References

Works Cited

AWWA. 2010. “AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO. Accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834.

Blanchard, B.S. and W.J. Fabrycky. 2011. Systems Engineering and Analysis, 5th ed. Prentice-Hall International series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.

Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service Life Extension of Virginia Bridge Decks afforded by Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement.” Journal of ASTM International (JAI), 3(2): 13.

DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.

Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R.C. Swanekamp. 1998. "Section 6.5" in Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering. New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill.

INCOSE. 2012. Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities, version 3.2.2. San Diego, CA, USA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.2.

Jackson. 2007. “A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions.” Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science. 11(2).

Livingston, H. 2010. “GEB1: Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices.” McClellan, CA: Defense MicroElectronics Activity (DMEA)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).

Mays, L. (ed). 2000. "Chapter 3" in Water Distribution Systems Handbook. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Office of Natural Gas and Oil Technology. 1999. Reservoir LIFE Extension Program: Encouraging Production of Remaining Oil and Gas. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Department of Energy (DoE).

Paks Nuclear Power Plant. 2010. “Paks Nuclear Power Plant: Service Life Extension.” In Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Ltd. Hungary, accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://paksnuclearpowerplant.com/service-life-extension.

SEI. 2010. “Software Engineering Institute.” In Software Engineering Institute (SEI)/Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). Pittsburgh, PA, accessed August 5, 2010. http://www.sei.cmu.edu.

Primary References

Blanchard, B.S., and W.J. Fabrycky. 2011. Systems Engineering and Analysis, 5th ed. Prentice-Hall International series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.

Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. Systems Engineering Guidebook for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), version 1.1. Sacramento, CA, USA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research and Innovation and U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1.

INCOSE. 2012. Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities, version 3.2.2. San Diego, CA, USA: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), INCOSE-TP-2003-002-03.2.2.

Jackson. 2007. “A Multidisciplinary Framework for Resilience to Disasters and Disruptions.” Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science. 11(2).

OUSD(AT&L). 2011. “Logistics and Materiel Readiness On-line policies, procedures, and planning references.” Arlington, VA, USA: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Transportation and Logistics (OUSD(AT&L). http://www.acq.osd.mil/log/.

Seacord, R.C., D. Plakosh, and G.A. Lewis. 2003. Modernizing Legacy Systems: Software Technologies, Engineering Processes, and Business Practices. Boston, MA, USA: Pearson Education.

Additional References

AWWA. 2010. “AWWA Manuals of Water Supply Practices.” In American Water Works Association (AWWA). Denver, CO, USA. Accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.awwa.org/Resources/standards.cfm?ItemNumber=47829&navItemNumber=47834.

Blanchard, B.S. 2010. Logistics engineering and management, 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall, 341-342.

Braunstein, A. 2007. “Balancing Hardware End-of-Life Costs and Responsibilities.” Westport, CT, USA: Experture Group, ETS 07-12-18.

Brown, M., R. Weyers, and M. Sprinkel. 2006. “Service Life Extension of Virginia Bridge Decks afforded by Epoxy-Coated Reinforcement.” Journal of ASTM International (JAI), 3(2): 13.

Caltrans and USDOT. 2005. Systems engineering guidebook for ITS, version 1.1. Sacramento, CA, USA: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) Division of Research & Innovation/U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), SEG for ITS 1.1: 278, 101-103, 107.

Casetta, E. 2001. Transportation Systems Engineering: Theory and methods. New York, NY, USA: Kluwer Publishers Academic, Springer.

DAU. 2010. “Acquisition community connection (ACC): Where the DoD AT&L workforce meets to share knowledge.” In Defense Acquisition University (DAU)/US Department of Defense (DoD). Ft. Belvoir, VA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. https://acc.dau.mil/.

DLA. 2010. “Defense logistics agency disposition services.” In Defense Logistics Agency (DLA)/U.S. Department of Defense [database online]. Battle Creek, MI, USA, accessed June 19 2010: 5. Available at: http://www.dtc.dla.mil.

Elliot, T., K. Chen, and R.C. Swanekamp. 1998. "Section 6.5" in Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering. New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill.

FAA. 2006. "Section 4.1" in “Systems Engineering Manual.” Washington, DC, USA: US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).

FCC. 2009. “Radio and Television Broadcast Rules.” Washington, DC, USA: US Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 47 CFR Part 73, FCC Rule 09-19: 11299-11318.

Finlayson, B. and B. Herdlick. 2008. Systems Engineering of Deployed Systems. Baltimore, MD, USA: Johns Hopkins University: 28.

Gehring, G., D. Lindemuth, and W.T. Young. 2004. “Break Reduction/Life extension Program for CAST and Ductile Iron Water Mains.” Paper presented at NO-DIG 2004, Conference of the North American Society for Trenchless Technology (NASTT), March 22-24, New Orleans, LA, USA.

Hovinga, M.N. and G.J. Nakoneczny. 2000. “Standard Recommendations for Pressure Part Inspection during a Boiler Life Extension Program.” Paper presented at ICOLM (International Conference on Life Management and Life Extension of Power Plant), May, Xi’an, P.R. China.

IEC. 2007. Obsolescence Management - Application Guide, ed 1.0. Geneva, Switzerland: International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC 62302.

IEEE. 2010. IEEE Standard Framework for Reliability Prediction of Hardware. New York, NY, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), IEEE STD 1413.

IEEE. 1998. IEEE Standard Reliability Program for the Development and Production of Electronic Systems and Equipment. New York, NY, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), IEEE STD 1332.

IEEE. 2008. IEEE Recommended practice on Software Reliability. New York, NY, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), IEEE STD 1633.

IEEE 2005. IEEE Standard for Software Configuration Management Plans. New York, NY, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), IEEE STD 828.

IEEE. 2010. IEEE Standard Framework for Reliability Prediction of Hardware. New York, NY, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), IEEE STD 1413.

ISO/IEC/IEEE. 2015. Systems and Software Engineering -- System Life Cycle Processes. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organisation for Standardisation / International Electrotechnical Commissions / Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288:2015.

Ihii, K., C.F. Eubanks, and P. Di Marco. 1994. “Design for Product Retirement and Material Life-Cycle.” Materials & Design. 15(4): 225-33.

INCOSE UK Chapter. 2010. Applying Systems Engineering to In-Service Systems: Supplementary Guidance to the INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook, version 3.2, issue 1.0. Foresgate, UK: International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) UK Chapter: 10, 13, 23.

Institute of Engineers Singapore. 2009. “Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge, provisional,” version 2.0. Singapore.

ISO/IEC. 2003. “Industrial Automation Systems Integration-Integration of Life-Cycle Data for Process Plants including Oil, Gas Production Facilities.” Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

ISO/IEC. 1997. “Systems Engineering for Commercial Aircraft.” Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Koopman, P. 1999. “Life Cycle Considerations.” In Carnegie-Mellon University (CMU). Pittsburgh, PA, USA, accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/des_s99/life_cycle/index.html.

L3 Communications. 2010. “Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).” Newport News, VA, USA: L3 Communications, Flight International Aviation LLC.

Livingston, H. 2010. “GEB1: Diminishing Manufacturing Sources and Material Shortages (DMSMS) Management Practices.” McClellan, CA: Defense MicroElectronics Activity (DMEA)/U.S. Department of Defense (DoD).

Mays, L. (ed). 2000. "Chapter 3" in Water Distribution Systems Handbook. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

MDIT. 2008. System Maintenance Guidebook (SMG), version 1.1: A companion to the systems engineering methodology (SEM) of the state unified information technology environment (SUITE). MI, USA: Michigan Department of Information Technology (MDIT), DOE G 200: 38.

NAS. 2006. National Airspace System (NAS) System Engineering Manual, version 3.1 (volumes 1-3). Washington, D.C., USA: Air Traffic Organization (ATO)/U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), NAS SEM 3.1.

NASA. 2007. Systems Engineering Handbook. Washington, DC, USA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), NASA/SP-2007-6105, December 2007.

Office of Natural Gas and Oil Technology. 1999. Reservoir LIFE Extension Program: Encouraging Production of Remaining Oil and Gas. Washington, DC, USA: U.S. Department of Energy (DoE).

Paks Nuclear Power Plant. 2010. “Paks Nuclear Power Plant: Service Life Extension.” In Paks Nuclear Power Plant, Ltd. Hungary, accessed August 5, 2010. Available at: http://paksnuclearpowerplant.com/service-life-extension.

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