Difference between revisions of "What is Systems Thinking?"

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This article forms part of the [[Systems Thinking]] Knowledge Area. The basis of systems thinking is to use the notion of system [[Holism (glossary)|holism (glossary)]] as defined in [[What is a System?]] to better understand all types of system, in particular the [[Engineered System (glossary)|engineered system (glossary)]] contexts described in [[Types of Systems]].  
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'''''Lead Author:''''' ''Rick Adcock'', '''''Contributing Authors:''''' ''Brian Wells, Bud Lawson''
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This topic is part of the [[Systems Thinking]] knowledge area (KA). The {{Term|Scope (glossary)|scope}} of {{Term|Systems Thinking (glossary)|systems thinking}} is a starting point for dealing with real world situations using a set of related {{Term|Systems Concept (glossary)|systems concepts}} discussed in the [[Concepts of Systems Thinking]] topic, systems {{Term| Principle (glossary)|principles}} discussed in the [[Principles of Systems Thinking]] topic, and system {{Term|Pattern (glossary)|patterns}} discussed in the [[Patterns of Systems Thinking]] topic.
  
The article considers the different ways in which [[Systems Thinking (glossary)|systems thinking (glossary)]] has been defined and how it relates to the perspective of those defining it. The scope of systems thinking is the foundation for dealing with real world situations using a set of related [[System Concepts|system concepts]].  
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==Introduction==
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The concepts, principles, and patterns of systems thinking have arisen both from the work of systems scientists and from the work of practitioners applying the insights of {{Term|Systems Science (glossary)|systems science}} to real-world {{Term|Problem (glossary)|problems}}.
  
==System Theory==
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{{Term|Holism (glossary)|Holism}} has been a dominant theme in systems thinking for nearly a century, in recognition of the need to consider a {{Term|System (glossary)|system}} as a whole because of observed phenomena such as {{Term|Emergence (glossary)|emergence}}. Proponents have included Wertheimer, Smuts, Bertalanffy, Weiss, (Ackoff 1979), (Klir 2001), and (Koestler 1967) among many others.  
Many attribute the notion of systems thinking to the work of Aristotle due to his efforts in examining multiple discipline related aspects in what is termed metaphysics. In modern times, the field of systems thinking has been evolving since the 1920’s when the Austrian biologist von Bertalanffy introduced the idea of using biological analogues to systems in general (von Bertalanffy 1968). The work of system scientists such as von Bertalanffy has been the foundation for the creation of applied methodologies to deal with real world system problems and the development of these ideas has in turn influenced the scope of systems thinking. These approaches have been categorized as ''hard'' and ''soft'' approaches and are defined as follows:
 
  
*''Hard'' thinking considers problems as “a difficult matter requiring solution, something hard to understand, accomplish or deal with” (Oxford English Dictionary). 
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A more detailed discussion of the most important movements in systems theory can be found in [[History of Systems Science]].
*''Soft'' thinking considers problems as “arising from everyday events and ideas, and may be perceived differently by different people. Such problems are not constructed by the investigator as are laboratory problems” (Checkland, 1981).
 
*''Hybrid'' thinking considers combinations of hard and soft thinking as appropriate the the situation (Jackson 1989).  
 
  
Churchman (1968) and others have also considered broader ethical, political and social questions related to management science with regards to the relative power and responsibility of the participants in system interventions.
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==Identifying Systems of Interest==
  
A more detailed discussion of the most important movements in system theory can be found in the [[History of System Science]] article.
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When humans observe or interact with a system, they allocate {{Term| Boundary (glossary)|boundaries}} and names to parts of the system. This naming may follow the natural hierarchy of the system, but will also reflect the needs and experience of the observer to associate {{Term|Element (glossary)|elements}} with common {{Term|Attribute (glossary)|attributes}} of {{Term|Purpose (glossary)|purposes}} relevant to their own. Thus, a number of {{Term|System-of-Interest (glossary)|systems of interest}} (SoIs) (Flood and Carson 1993) must be identified and they must be both relevant and include a set of elements which represent a system whole. This way of observing systems wherein the {{Term|Complex (glossary)|complex}} system relationships are focused around a particular system boundary is called '''systemic resolution'''.
  
==Definitions of Systems Thinking==
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Systems thinking requires an ongoing process of attention and adaptation to ensure that one has appropriately identified boundaries, dependencies, and relationships. Churchman (1968) and others have also considered broader ethical, political, and social questions related to management science with regards to the relative power and responsibility of the participants in system interventions. These are seen by critical systems thinkers as key factors to be considered in defining problem system boundaries.
  
Senge (1990, 6-7) defines systems thinking in his seminal work on learning organizations: “Systems thinking is a process of discovery and diagnosis – an inquiry into the governing processes underlying the problems we face and the opportunities we have.” Senge further describes systems thinking as follows:
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A {{Term|System Context (glossary)|system context}} can be used to define a SoI and to capture and agree on the important relationships between it, such as the systems which it works with directly and the systems which influence it in some way. When this approach is used to focus on part of a larger system, a balance of {{Term|Reductionism (glossary)|reductionism}} and {{Term|Holism (glossary)|holism}} is applied. This balance sits at the heart of a {{Term|Systems Approach (glossary)|systems approach}}. A systems context provides the tool for applying this balance and is thus an essential part of any systems approach and hence, of systems engineering (SE) as well. Approaches for describing the {{Term|Context (glossary)|context}} of the different types of {{Term|Engineered System (glossary)|engineered systems}} are discussed in the [[Engineered System Context]] topic within the [[Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems]] KA.
<blockquote>''Systems thinking is a discipline for seeing wholes. It is a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things, for seeing patterns of change rather than static snapshots. It is a set of general principles- distilled over the course of the twentieth century, spanning fields as diverse as the physical and social sciences, engineering, and management... During the last thirty years, these tools have been applied to understand a wide range of corporate, urban, regional, economic, political, ecological, and even psychological systems. And systems thinking is a sensibility - for the subtle interconnectedness that gives living systems their unique character.'' (Senge 2006, 68-69)</blockquote>
 
  
According to Senge and his colleagues (Senge 1994), a good systems thinker, particularly in an organizational setting, is someone who can see four levels operating simultaneously: events, patterns of behavior, systems, and mental models. 
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==Thoughts on Systems Thinking==
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Senge (1990) discusses {{Term|Systems Thinking (glossary)|systems thinking}} in a number of ways as <blockquote>''a discipline for seeing wholes ... a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things ... a process of discovery and diagnosis ... and as a sensibility for the subtle interconnectedness that gives living systems their unique character.''(Senge 2006, 68-69)</blockquote>
  
More recent chaos and complexity theories have also impacted the development of systems thinking, including the treatment of such concepts as emergence. According to Gharajedaghi:
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Churchman came to define a {{Term|Systems Approach (glossary)|systems approach}} as requiring consideration of a system from the {{Term|Viewpoint (glossary)|viewpoint}} of those outside its boundary (Churchman 1979). There are many demonstrations that choosing too narrow a boundary, either in terms of scope or timeline, results in the problem of the moment being solved only at the expense of a similar or bigger problem being created somewhere else in space, community, or time (Senge 2006) and (Meadows 1977). This is the “shifting the burden” archetype described in [[Patterns of Systems Thinking]] topic.  
<blockquote>''Systems thinking is the art of simplifying complexity. It is about seeing through chaos, managing interdependency, and understanding choice. We see the world as increasingly more complex and chaotic because we use inadequate concepts to explain it. When we understand something, we no longer see it as chaotic or complex.'' (Gharajedaghi 1999, 283)</blockquote>
 
The definition of systems thinking has evolved over time as advances have been made in systems theory. Some additional examples of systems thinking definitions are as follows:
 
*“Systems thinking requires the consciousness of the fact that we deal with models of our reality and not with the reality itself.”  (Ossimitz 1997, 1)
 
*“…what is often called “systemic thinking” …is …a bundle of capabilities, and at the heart of it is the ability to apply our normal thought processes, our common sense, to the circumstances of a given situation.”  (Dörner 1996, 199);
 
*“Systems thinking provides a powerful way of taking account of causal connections that are distant in time and space.”  (Stacey 2000, 9)
 
A broader perspective considers systems thinking to be one element in a wider system of holistic thinking. Kasser defines holistic thinking as follows: "...the combination of analysis [in the form of elaboration], systems thinking and critical thinking." (Kasser 2010)
 
  
Churchman believes that an important component of system knowledge comes from "others" or "enemies" outside the system: The systems approach begins when first you see the world through the eyes of another. Churchman (1968)
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Churchman believes that an important {{Term|Component (glossary)|component}} of system knowledge comes from "others" or "enemies" outside the system; the systems approach begins when first you see the world through the eyes of another (Churchman 1968). In this famous phrase, Churchman suggests that people can step outside a system they are in and mentally try to consider it through the lenses of other people's {{Term|Value (glossary)|values}}. Churchman (1979) identified four main enemies of the systems approach namely: politics, morality, religion and aesthetics.
  
In this famous phrase, Churchman suggests that people can step outside a system they are in and mentally try to consider it through the lenses of other people's values. Churchman (1979), identified four main enemies of the systems approach ([[Acronyms|SA]]) namely: politics, morality, religion and aesthetics. In doing so he pioneered the use of the epistemological inquiry an approach which can be used to enlarge the scope of available knowledge and to increase our understanding of the underlying concepts of these issues.
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To Churchman, the "enemies" of the systems approach provide a powerful way of learning about the systems approach, precisely because they enable the rational thinker to step outside the boundary of a system and to look at it. It means that systems thinkers are not necessarily just involved within a system but are essentially involved in reasoning and decisions "outside" of systems rationality.
  
To Churchman, the "enemies" of the SA provide a powerful way of learning about the systems approach, precisely because they enable the rational thinker to step outside the boundary of a system and to look at it. It means that systems thinkers are not necessarily involved within a system but are essentially involved in the "outside" of systems rationality. In Churchman’s systems approach, decision makers or system designers admit the freedom of individual thinking and our world view is very restricted and that it is possible to develop an alternative 'mode of thinking'.
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Some additional perspectives on systems thinking definitions are as follows:
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* “Systems thinking requires the consciousness of the fact that we deal with models of our reality and not with the reality itself.”  (Ossimitz 1997, 1)
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* “…what is often called ‘systemic thinking’ …is …a bundle of capabilities, and at the heart of it is the ability to apply our normal thought processes, our common sense, to the circumstances of a given situation.”  (Dörner 1996, 199)
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* “Systems thinking provides a powerful way of taking account of causal connections that are distant in time and space.” (Stacey 2000, 9)
  
For several years, Gene Bellinger has provided insight into the field of systems thinking via his popular web-site www.systems-thinking.org. He initiated a LinkedIn discussion group entitled ''Systems Thinking World'' and the wiki site www.systemswiki.org. Bellinger makes the following highly relevant observation concerning the field of systems thinking and its benefits on his website:
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{{Term|Chaos (glossary)|Chaos}} and {{Term|Complexity (glossary)|complexity}} theories have also impacted the development of systems thinking, including the treatment of such concepts as {{Term|Emergence (glossary)|emergence}}. According to Gharajedaghi:
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<blockquote>''Systems thinking is the art of simplifying complexity. It is about seeing through chaos, managing interdependency, and understanding choice. We see the world as increasingly more complex and chaotic because we use inadequate concepts to explain it. When we understand something, we no longer see it as chaotic or complex.'' (Gharajedaghi 1999, 283)</blockquote>
  
<blockquote>''As I have continued to ponder the meaning of Systems Thinking over the years in conjunction with reading and many conversations it would seem that the understanding has evolved, thankfully. There was a time when I thought Systems Thinking was just a not very grown up version of System Dynamics though I have come to understand it is really far more encompassing. While the meaning continues to evolve my foundational belief remains solid. Systems Thinking will enable you to better understand the world around you and enable you to have more control over your life than any other subject you may undertake to study. For situations that concern you Systems Thinking will enable you to create approaches for dealing with these situations that are highly likely to produce the desired results while minimizing unexpected consequences.'' (Bellinger 2011)</blockquote>
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Kasser considers systems thinking to be one element in a wider system of {{Term|Holistic (glossary)|holistic}} thinking. Kasser defines holistic thinking as follows: "...the combination of analysis [in the form of elaboration], systems thinking and critical thinking" (Kasser 2010).
  
From these definitions, one can see systems thinking as both a set of founding ideas for the development of systems theories and practices and also as a pervasive way of thinking need by those developing and applying them. These ideas are further developed in the [[System Science]] and [[Systems Approach]] knowledge areas.
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==Systems Thinking and the Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge==
  
==The Systems Thinking Paradox==
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From these discussions, one can see systems thinking as both a set of founding ideas for the development of systems theories and practices and also as a pervasive way of thinking needed by those developing and applying those theories.  
In order to examine a particular group of elements in more detail, to understand, use or change them in some way, people are faced with an apparent “systems thinking paradox”. One can only truly understand a system by considering all of its possible relationships and interactions, inside and outside of its boundary and in all possible future situations (of both system creation and life), but this makes it apparently impossible for people to understand a system or to predict all of the consequences of changes to it.
 
  
If this means that all possible system relationships and environmental conditions must be considered to fully understand the consequences of creating or changing a system, what useful work can be done?
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The SEBoK is particularly focused on how systems thinking can support a [[Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems|systems approach to engineered systems]].
  
In many ways this is the essence of all human endeavors, whether they be technical, managerial, social or political, the so called ''known knowns'' and ''unknown unknowns''. The [[Systems Approach (glossary)|systems approach (glossary)]] is a way of tackling real world problems and making use of the tools of systems science to enable systems to be engineered and used. The key principle of the systems approach is that some of the detail of complex situations must be hidden to allow focus on changes to a system element. The impact must be considered of any changes that might be made across sufficient related system components to fit within acceptable commercial and social risks must be considered. Engineering and management disciplines deal with this by gathering as much knowledge as necessary to proceed at a risk level acceptable to the required need. The assessment of what is enough and how much risk to take can, to some extent, be codified with rules and regulations, and managed through processes and procedures; however, it is ultimately a combination of the skill and judgement of the individuals performing the work.
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In order to examine a SoI in more detail, to understand, use, or change it in some way, practitioners are faced with an apparent “systems thinking paradox.” One can only truly understand a system by considering all of its possible relationships and interactions, inside and outside of its boundary and in all possible future situations (of both system creation and life), but this makes it apparently impossible for people to understand a system or to predict all of the consequences of changes to it.
  
==System of Interest==
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If this means that all possible system relationships and {{Term|Environment (glossary)|environmental}} conditions must be considered to fully understand the consequences of creating or changing a system, what useful work can be done?
  
When humans observe or interact with a system, they allocate boundaries and names to parts of the system.  This naming may follow the natural hierarchy of the system, but will also reflect the needs and experience of the observer to associate elements with common attributes of purposes relevant to their own.   Thus a number of [[System of Interest (SoI) (glossary)|Systems of Interest (SoI) (glossary)]] (Flood and Carson 1993) must be identified, which must be both relevant and include a set of elements which represent a system whole. This way of observing systems is call '''Systemic Resolution''' in which the complex system relationships are focused around a particular system boundary.
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In many ways this is the essence of all human endeavors, whether they are technical, managerial, social or political, the so-called ''known knowns'' and ''unknown unknowns''. The systems approach is a way of tackling real world {{Term|Problem (glossary)|problems}} and making use of the {{Term|Concept (glossary)|concepts}}, {{Term|Principle (glossary)|principles}} and {{Term|Pattern (glossary)|patterns}} of systems thinking to enable systems to be engineered and used.  
  
A [[System Context (glossary)|system context (glossary)]] is used to define a SoI, and to capture and agree on the important relationships between it; the systems it works directly with and the systems which influence it in some way.  When this approach is used to focus on part of a larger system, a balance of [[Reductionism (glossary)|reductionism (glossary)]] and [[Holism (glossary)|holism (glossary)]] are applied, which sit at the heart of a systems approach.  A systems context provides the tool for doing this, and is thus an essential part of any systems approach and hence of SE.  Approaches for describing the context of the different types of [[Engineered System (glossary)|engineered system (glossary)]] are discussed in [[Engineered System Context]] within the [[Systems Approach]] Knowledge Area.
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The systems principles of {{Term|Encapsulation (glossary)|encapsulation}} and separation of concerns in [[Principles of Systems Thinking]] relate to this issue. Some of the detail of complex situations must be hidden to allow focus on changes to a {{Term|System Element (glossary)|system element}}. The impact must be considered of any changes that might be made across sufficient related system {{Term|Component (glossary)|components}} to fit within the acceptable commercial and social {{Term|Risk (glossary)|risks}} that must be considered. Engineering and management disciplines deal with this by gathering as much knowledge as necessary to proceed at a risk level acceptable to the required need. The assessment of what is enough and how much risk to take can, to some extent, be codified with rules and regulations, and managed through {{Term|Process (glossary)|processes}} and procedures; however, it is ultimately a combination of the skill and judgment of the individuals performing the work.
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
 
===Works Cited===
 
===Works Cited===
Bellinger, G. 2011. "Systems Thinking Definitions", Retrieved September 7, 2011 from http://www.systemswiki.org/index.php?title=Systems_Thinking_Definitions.
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Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. ''[[General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications]],'' Revised ed. New York, NY, USA: Braziller.
  
Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. ''[[General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications]]''. Revised ed. New York, NY: Braziller.
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Churchman, C.W. 1968. ''The Systems Approach''. New York, NY, USA: Delacorte Press.
  
Churchman, C. W. 1968. ''The Systems Approach''. Delacorte Press.
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Churchman, C.W. 1979. ''The Systems Approach and Its Enemies''. New York, NY, USA: Basic Books.
  
Churchman, C. West. 1979. "The Systems Approach and Its Enemies". New York: Basic Books.
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Checkland, P. 1981. ''Systems Thinking, Systems Practice''. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.  
  
Checkland, P. 1981. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.  
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Dorner, H., and A. Karpati. 2008. "Mentored innovation in teacher training using two virtual collaborative learning environments," in ''Beyond Knowledge: The Legacy of Competence--Meaningful Computer-Based Learning Environments'', eds. J. Zumbach, N. Schwartz, T. Seufert and L. Kester. Vol. VIII. New York, NY, USA: Springer.  
  
Dorner, H., and A. Karpati. 2008. "Mentored innovation in teacher training using two virtual collaborative learning environments." In ''Beyond knowledge: The legacy of competence--meaningful computer-based learning environments''., eds. J. Zumbach, N. Schwartz, T. Seufert and L. Kester. Vol. VIII. New York, NY: Springer.  
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Flood, R.L. and E.R. Carson. 1993. ''Dealing with Complexity: An Introduction to the Theory and Application of Systems Science'', 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Plenum Press.  
  
Flood, R. L. and E.R. Carson. 1993. Dealing with Complexity: An Introduction to the Theory and Application of Systems Science, 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Plenum Press.  
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Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. ''[[Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity]]: A Platform for Designing Business Architecture,'' 1st ed. Woburn, MA, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann.  
  
Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. ''[[Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity]]: A platform for designing.'' 1st ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.  
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Jackson, M. 1989. "Which Systems Methodology When?  Initial Results from a Research Program," in R. Flood, M. Jackson and P. Keys (eds),  ''Systems Prospects: The Next Ten Years of Systems Research.'' New York, NY, USA: Plenum.
  
Jackson, M. 1989. "Which Systems Methodology When?  Initial Results from a Research Program." In: R Flood, M Jackson and P Keys (eds).  ''Systems Prospects: the Next Ten Years of Systems Research.'' New York, NY, USA: Plenum.
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Kasser, J. 2010. "Holistic thinking and how it can produce innovative solutions to difficult problems." Paper presented at 7th Bi-annual European Systems Engineering Conference (EuSEC), Stockholm, Sweden, 24-27 May 2010.  
  
Kasser, J. 2010. "Holistic thinking and how it can produce innovative solutions to difficult problems." Paper presented at 7th Bi-annual European Systems Engineering Conference (EuSEC), 24-27 May 2010, Stockholm, Sweden.  
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Meadows, D. H. et al. 1977. "Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind." New American Library, paperback, ISBN 0-451-13695-0; Universe Books, hardcover, 1972, ISBN 0-87663-222-3 (scarce).
  
Ossimitz, G. The development of systems thinking skills using system dynamics modeling tools. in Universitat Klagenfurt [database online]. Klagenfurt, Austria, 1997 [cited November 12 2007]. Available from http://wwwu.uni-klu.ac.at/gossimit/sdyn/gdm_eng.htm.  
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Ossimitz, G. 1997. "The development of systems thinking skills using system dynamics modeling tools," in Universitat Klagenfurt [database online]. Klagenfurt, Austria: Universitat Klagenfurt.Accessed November 12 2007. Available at: http://wwwu.uni-klu.ac.at/gossimit/sdyn/gdm_eng.htm.  
  
Senge, P. M. 1990, 2006. ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.'' New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.
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Senge, P.M. 1990, 2006. ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.'' New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.
  
Senge, P. M., A. Klieiner, C. Roberts, R. B. Ross, and B. J. Smith. 1994. ''The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization''. New York, NY: Crown Business.
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Stacey, R.D., D. Griffin, and P. Shaw. 2000. ''Complexity and management: Fad or radical challenge to systems thinking?'' London, U.K.: Routledge.
 
 
Stacey, R. D., D. Griffin, and P. Shaw. 2000. ''Complexity and management: Fad or radical challenge to systems thinking?''. London, U.K.: Routledge.
 
  
 
===Primary References===
 
===Primary References===
Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. ''[[General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications]]''. Revised ed. New York, NY: Braziller.
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Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. ''[[General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications]],'' Revised ed. New York, NY: Braziller.
  
Churchman, C. West. 1979. "[[The Systems Approach and its Enemies]]". New York: Basic Books.
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Churchman, C.W. 1979. "[[The Systems Approach and its Enemies]]". New York: Basic Books.
  
Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. ''[[Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity]]: A platform for designing.'' 1st ed. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
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Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. ''[[Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity]]: A Platform for Designing Business Architecture,'' 1st ed. Woburn, MA, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
  
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Senge, P.M. 1990, 2006. ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.'' New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.
  
Senge, P. M. 1990, 2006. ''[[The Fifth Discipline]]: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.'' New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.
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===Additional References===
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Jackson, M. 2003. ''Systems Thinking: Creating Holisms for Managers.'' Chichester, UK: Wiley.
  
===Additional References===
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Edson, R. 2008. ''Systems Thinking. Applied. A Primer'', in: ASYST Institute (ed.). Arlington, VA: Analytic Services.
Jackson, M. 2003. ''Systems Thinking: Creating Holisms for Managers.'' Wiley; Chichester
 
  
Edson, R. 2008. ''Systems Thinking. Applied. A Primer''. In: ASYST Institute (ed.). Arlington, VA: Analytic Services.
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Klir, G. 2001. ''Facets of Systems Science'', 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
  
Lawson, H. 2010. ''[[A Journey Through the Systems Landscape]]'', London, Kings College, UK.
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Koestler, A. 1967. ''The Ghost in the Machine.'' New York, NY, USA: Macmillan.
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Lawson, H. 2010. ''[[A Journey Through the Systems Landscape]].'' London, Kings College, UK.
<center>[[Types of Systems|< Previous Article]] | [[Systems Thinking|Parent Article]] | [[System Concepts|Next Article >]]</center>
 
  
[[Category:Part 2]][[Category:Topic]]
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MITRE. 2012. “Systems Engineering Guide.” Accessed September 11, 2012. Available at: http://www.mitre.org/work/systems_engineering/guide.
[[Category:Systems Thinking]]
 
  
==Comments from SEBok 0.5 Wiki==
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Rebovich, G., Jr. 2005. "Systems thinking for the enterprise (new and emerging perspectives)," in ''Volume 2 of Enterprise Systems Engineering Theory and Practice''. McLean, VA, USA:The MITRE Corporation.  
  
Please note that in version 0.5, this article was titled “Systems Thinking”. This should not be confused with the new [[Systems Thinking]] article, which is the first knowledge area in Part 2.
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Senge, P.M., A. Klieiner, C. Roberts, R.B. Ross, and B.J. Smith. 1994. ''The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization''. New York, NY, USA: Crown Business.  
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<center>[[Systems Thinking|< Previous Article]] | [[Systems Thinking|Parent Article]] | [[Concepts of Systems Thinking|Next Article >]]</center>
  
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[[Category:Systems Thinking]]

Latest revision as of 23:22, 2 May 2024


Lead Author: Rick Adcock, Contributing Authors: Brian Wells, Bud Lawson


This topic is part of the Systems Thinking knowledge area (KA). The scopescope of systems thinkingsystems thinking is a starting point for dealing with real world situations using a set of related systems conceptssystems concepts discussed in the Concepts of Systems Thinking topic, systems principlesprinciples discussed in the Principles of Systems Thinking topic, and system patternspatterns discussed in the Patterns of Systems Thinking topic.

Introduction

The concepts, principles, and patterns of systems thinking have arisen both from the work of systems scientists and from the work of practitioners applying the insights of systems sciencesystems science to real-world problemsproblems.

HolismHolism has been a dominant theme in systems thinking for nearly a century, in recognition of the need to consider a systemsystem as a whole because of observed phenomena such as emergenceemergence. Proponents have included Wertheimer, Smuts, Bertalanffy, Weiss, (Ackoff 1979), (Klir 2001), and (Koestler 1967) among many others.

A more detailed discussion of the most important movements in systems theory can be found in History of Systems Science.

Identifying Systems of Interest

When humans observe or interact with a system, they allocate boundariesboundaries and names to parts of the system. This naming may follow the natural hierarchy of the system, but will also reflect the needs and experience of the observer to associate elementselements with common attributesattributes of purposespurposes relevant to their own. Thus, a number of systems of interestsystems of interest (SoIs) (Flood and Carson 1993) must be identified and they must be both relevant and include a set of elements which represent a system whole. This way of observing systems wherein the complexcomplex system relationships are focused around a particular system boundary is called systemic resolution.

Systems thinking requires an ongoing process of attention and adaptation to ensure that one has appropriately identified boundaries, dependencies, and relationships. Churchman (1968) and others have also considered broader ethical, political, and social questions related to management science with regards to the relative power and responsibility of the participants in system interventions. These are seen by critical systems thinkers as key factors to be considered in defining problem system boundaries.

A system contextsystem context can be used to define a SoI and to capture and agree on the important relationships between it, such as the systems which it works with directly and the systems which influence it in some way. When this approach is used to focus on part of a larger system, a balance of reductionismreductionism and holismholism is applied. This balance sits at the heart of a systems approachsystems approach. A systems context provides the tool for applying this balance and is thus an essential part of any systems approach and hence, of systems engineering (SE) as well. Approaches for describing the contextcontext of the different types of engineered systemsengineered systems are discussed in the Engineered System Context topic within the Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems KA.

Thoughts on Systems Thinking

Senge (1990) discusses systems thinkingsystems thinking in a number of ways as

a discipline for seeing wholes ... a framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things ... a process of discovery and diagnosis ... and as a sensibility for the subtle interconnectedness that gives living systems their unique character.(Senge 2006, 68-69)

Churchman came to define a systems approachsystems approach as requiring consideration of a system from the viewpointviewpoint of those outside its boundary (Churchman 1979). There are many demonstrations that choosing too narrow a boundary, either in terms of scope or timeline, results in the problem of the moment being solved only at the expense of a similar or bigger problem being created somewhere else in space, community, or time (Senge 2006) and (Meadows 1977). This is the “shifting the burden” archetype described in Patterns of Systems Thinking topic.

Churchman believes that an important componentcomponent of system knowledge comes from "others" or "enemies" outside the system; the systems approach begins when first you see the world through the eyes of another (Churchman 1968). In this famous phrase, Churchman suggests that people can step outside a system they are in and mentally try to consider it through the lenses of other people's valuesvalues. Churchman (1979) identified four main enemies of the systems approach namely: politics, morality, religion and aesthetics.

To Churchman, the "enemies" of the systems approach provide a powerful way of learning about the systems approach, precisely because they enable the rational thinker to step outside the boundary of a system and to look at it. It means that systems thinkers are not necessarily just involved within a system but are essentially involved in reasoning and decisions "outside" of systems rationality.

Some additional perspectives on systems thinking definitions are as follows:

  • “Systems thinking requires the consciousness of the fact that we deal with models of our reality and not with the reality itself.” (Ossimitz 1997, 1)
  • “…what is often called ‘systemic thinking’ …is …a bundle of capabilities, and at the heart of it is the ability to apply our normal thought processes, our common sense, to the circumstances of a given situation.” (Dörner 1996, 199)
  • “Systems thinking provides a powerful way of taking account of causal connections that are distant in time and space.” (Stacey 2000, 9)

ChaosChaos and complexitycomplexity theories have also impacted the development of systems thinking, including the treatment of such concepts as emergenceemergence. According to Gharajedaghi:

Systems thinking is the art of simplifying complexity. It is about seeing through chaos, managing interdependency, and understanding choice. We see the world as increasingly more complex and chaotic because we use inadequate concepts to explain it. When we understand something, we no longer see it as chaotic or complex. (Gharajedaghi 1999, 283)

Kasser considers systems thinking to be one element in a wider system of holisticholistic thinking. Kasser defines holistic thinking as follows: "...the combination of analysis [in the form of elaboration], systems thinking and critical thinking" (Kasser 2010).

Systems Thinking and the Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge

From these discussions, one can see systems thinking as both a set of founding ideas for the development of systems theories and practices and also as a pervasive way of thinking needed by those developing and applying those theories.

The SEBoK is particularly focused on how systems thinking can support a systems approach to engineered systems.

In order to examine a SoI in more detail, to understand, use, or change it in some way, practitioners are faced with an apparent “systems thinking paradox.” One can only truly understand a system by considering all of its possible relationships and interactions, inside and outside of its boundary and in all possible future situations (of both system creation and life), but this makes it apparently impossible for people to understand a system or to predict all of the consequences of changes to it.

If this means that all possible system relationships and environmentalenvironmental conditions must be considered to fully understand the consequences of creating or changing a system, what useful work can be done?

In many ways this is the essence of all human endeavors, whether they are technical, managerial, social or political, the so-called known knowns and unknown unknowns. The systems approach is a way of tackling real world problemsproblems and making use of the conceptsconcepts, principlesprinciples and patternspatterns of systems thinking to enable systems to be engineered and used.

The systems principles of encapsulationencapsulation and separation of concerns in Principles of Systems Thinking relate to this issue. Some of the detail of complex situations must be hidden to allow focus on changes to a system elementsystem element. The impact must be considered of any changes that might be made across sufficient related system componentscomponents to fit within the acceptable commercial and social risksrisks that must be considered. Engineering and management disciplines deal with this by gathering as much knowledge as necessary to proceed at a risk level acceptable to the required need. The assessment of what is enough and how much risk to take can, to some extent, be codified with rules and regulations, and managed through processesprocesses and procedures; however, it is ultimately a combination of the skill and judgment of the individuals performing the work.

References

Works Cited

Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, Revised ed. New York, NY, USA: Braziller.

Churchman, C.W. 1968. The Systems Approach. New York, NY, USA: Delacorte Press.

Churchman, C.W. 1979. The Systems Approach and Its Enemies. New York, NY, USA: Basic Books.

Checkland, P. 1981. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.

Dorner, H., and A. Karpati. 2008. "Mentored innovation in teacher training using two virtual collaborative learning environments," in Beyond Knowledge: The Legacy of Competence--Meaningful Computer-Based Learning Environments, eds. J. Zumbach, N. Schwartz, T. Seufert and L. Kester. Vol. VIII. New York, NY, USA: Springer.

Flood, R.L. and E.R. Carson. 1993. Dealing with Complexity: An Introduction to the Theory and Application of Systems Science, 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Plenum Press.

Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity: A Platform for Designing Business Architecture, 1st ed. Woburn, MA, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Jackson, M. 1989. "Which Systems Methodology When? Initial Results from a Research Program," in R. Flood, M. Jackson and P. Keys (eds), Systems Prospects: The Next Ten Years of Systems Research. New York, NY, USA: Plenum.

Kasser, J. 2010. "Holistic thinking and how it can produce innovative solutions to difficult problems." Paper presented at 7th Bi-annual European Systems Engineering Conference (EuSEC), Stockholm, Sweden, 24-27 May 2010.

Meadows, D. H. et al. 1977. "Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind." New American Library, paperback, ISBN 0-451-13695-0; Universe Books, hardcover, 1972, ISBN 0-87663-222-3 (scarce).

Ossimitz, G. 1997. "The development of systems thinking skills using system dynamics modeling tools," in Universitat Klagenfurt [database online]. Klagenfurt, Austria: Universitat Klagenfurt.Accessed November 12 2007. Available at: http://wwwu.uni-klu.ac.at/gossimit/sdyn/gdm_eng.htm.

Senge, P.M. 1990, 2006. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.

Stacey, R.D., D. Griffin, and P. Shaw. 2000. Complexity and management: Fad or radical challenge to systems thinking? London, U.K.: Routledge.

Primary References

Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, Revised ed. New York, NY: Braziller.

Churchman, C.W. 1979. "The Systems Approach and its Enemies". New York: Basic Books.

Gharajedaghi, J. 1999. Systems Thinking: Managing Chaos and Complexity: A Platform for Designing Business Architecture, 1st ed. Woburn, MA, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Senge, P.M. 1990, 2006. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. New York, NY, USA: Doubleday Currency.

Additional References

Jackson, M. 2003. Systems Thinking: Creating Holisms for Managers. Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Edson, R. 2008. Systems Thinking. Applied. A Primer, in: ASYST Institute (ed.). Arlington, VA: Analytic Services.

Klir, G. 2001. Facets of Systems Science, 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Koestler, A. 1967. The Ghost in the Machine. New York, NY, USA: Macmillan. Lawson, H. 2010. A Journey Through the Systems Landscape. London, Kings College, UK.

MITRE. 2012. “Systems Engineering Guide.” Accessed September 11, 2012. Available at: http://www.mitre.org/work/systems_engineering/guide.

Rebovich, G., Jr. 2005. "Systems thinking for the enterprise (new and emerging perspectives)," in Volume 2 of Enterprise Systems Engineering Theory and Practice. McLean, VA, USA:The MITRE Corporation.

Senge, P.M., A. Klieiner, C. Roberts, R.B. Ross, and B.J. Smith. 1994. The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook: Strategies and Tools for Building a Learning Organization. New York, NY, USA: Crown Business.


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