Difference between revisions of "Enterprise Systems Engineering"

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Here are the sections of this top-level article, which provides an introduction to the discipline of [[Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) (glossary)|enterprise systems engineering (ESE)]]:
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'''''Lead Authors:''''' ''James Martin, Dick Fairley, Bud Lawson''
==Purpose==
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This article, and its sub-articles (listed as "Topics" below), provides an introduction to [[Systems Engineering (glossary)|systems engineering]] [[Acronyms|(SE)]] at the [[Enterprise (glossary)|enterprise]] level in contrast to “traditional” SE [[Acronyms|(TSE)]] (sometimes called “conventional” or “classical” SE) performed in a development [[Project (glossary)|project]] or to “product” engineering (often called product development in the SE literature).  
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{{Term|Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) (glossary)|Enterprise systems engineering }} (ESE) is the application of systems engineering principles, concepts, and methods to the planning, design, improvement, and operation of an enterprise.
  
This Knowledge Area includes the following Topics:
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==Topics==
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Each part of the SEBoK is divided into knowledge areas (KAs), which are groupings of information with a related theme. The KAs in turn are divided into topics. This KA contains the following topics:  
 
*[[Enterprise Systems Engineering Background]]
 
*[[Enterprise Systems Engineering Background]]
 
*[[The Enterprise as a System]]
 
*[[The Enterprise as a System]]
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*[[Enterprise Capability Management]]
 
*[[Enterprise Capability Management]]
  
The concept of enterprise was instrumental in the great expansion of world trade in the 17th century (see note 1) and again during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The world may be at the cusp of another global revolution enabled by the Information Age and the technologies and [[Culture (glossary)|cultures]] of the Internet (see note 2). The discipline of SE now has the unique opportunity of providing the tools and methods for the next round of enterprise transformations. [[Acronyms|(ESE)]] is an emerging discipline that focuses on frameworks, tools, and problem-solving approaches for dealing with the inherent [[Complexity (glossary)|complexities]] (see also [[Complexity]]) of the enterprise. Furthermore, ESE addresses more than just solving problems; it also deals with the exploitation of opportunities for better ways to achieve the enterprise goals. A good overall description of ESE is provided by Rebovich and White (2011).
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==Introduction==
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This knowledge area provides an introduction to {{Term|Systems Engineering (glossary)|systems engineering}} (SE) at the {{Term|Enterprise (glossary)|enterprise}} level in contrast to “traditional” SE (TSE) (sometimes called “conventional” or “classical” SE) performed in a development {{Term|Project (glossary)|project}} or to “product” engineering (often called product development in the SE literature).
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The concept of enterprise was instrumental in the great expansion of world trade in the 17th century (see note 1) and again during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The world may be at the cusp of another global revolution enabled by the information age and the technologies and {{Term|Culture (glossary)|cultures}} of the Internet (see note 2). The discipline of SE now has the unique opportunity of providing the tools and methods for the next round of enterprise transformations.  
  
:<I>Note 1. “The Dutch East India Company… was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the <u>first multinational corporation</u> in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the <u>world's first mega-corporation</u>, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.” (emphasis added, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company)
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:<I>Note 1. “The Dutch East India Company… was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the <u>first multinational corporation</u> in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the '''world's first mega-corporation''', possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.” (emphasis added, National Library of the Netherlands 2010)
  
:Note 2. This new revolution is being enabled by cheap and easily usable technology, global availability of information and knowledge, and increased mobility and adaptability of human capital. The enterprise level of analysis is only feasible now because [[Organization (glossary)|organizations]] can work together to form enterprises in a much more fluid manner.
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:Note 2. This new revolution is being enabled by cheap and easily usable technology, global availability of information and knowledge, and increased mobility and adaptability of human capital. The enterprise level of analysis is only feasible now because {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organizations}} can work together to form enterprises in a much more fluid manner.
 
</I>
 
</I>
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ESE is an emerging discipline that focuses on frameworks, tools, and problem-solving approaches for dealing with the inherent {{Term|Complexity (glossary)|complexities}} of the enterprise. Furthermore, ESE addresses more than just solving problems; it also deals with the exploitation of opportunities for better ways to achieve the enterprise goals. A good overall description of ESE is provided by in the book by Rebovich and White (2011).
  
 
==Key Terms==
 
==Key Terms==
 
===Enterprise===
 
===Enterprise===
An enterprise consists of a purposeful combination (e.g., a [[Network (glossary)|network]]) of interdependent resources (e.g., people, [[Process (glossary)|processes]], organizations, supporting technologies, and funding) that interact with:  
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An enterprise consists of a purposeful combination (e.g., a {{Term|Network (glossary)|network}}) of interdependent resources (e.g., people, {{Term|Process (glossary)|processes}}, organizations, supporting technologies, and funding) that interact with  
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* each other to coordinate functions, share information, allocate funding, create workflows, and make decisions, etc.; and
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* their {{Term|Environment (glossary)|environment(s)}} to achieve {{Term|Business (glossary)|business}} and {{Term|Operational (glossary)|operational}} goals through a {{Term|Complex (glossary)|complex}} web of interactions distributed across geography and time (Rebovich and White 2011, 4-35).
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The term enterprise has been defined as follows:
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<blockquote>(1) ''One or more {{Term|Organization (glossary)|organizations}} sharing a definite {{Term|Mission (glossary)|mission}}, goals, and objectives to offer an {{Term|Output (glossary)|output}} such as a {{Term|Product (glossary)|product}} or {{Term|Service (glossary)|service}}.'' (ISO 2000);</blockquote>
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<blockquote>(2) ''An organization (or cross organizational entity) supporting a defined {{Term|Business (glossary)|business}} scope and mission that includes interdependent resources (people, organizations and technologies) that must coordinate their {{Term|Function (glossary)|functions}} and share information in support of a common mission (or set of related missions).'' (CIO Council 1999);</blockquote>
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<blockquote>(3) ''The term enterprise can be defined in one of two ways. The first is when the entity being considered is tightly bounded and directed by a single executive function. The second is when organizational {{Term|Boundary (glossary)|boundaries}} are less well defined and where there may be multiple owners in terms of direction of the resources being employed. The common factor is that both entities exist to achieve specified outcomes.'' (MOD 2004); and </blockquote>
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<blockquote>(4) ''A complex, (adaptive) socio-technical system that comprises interdependent resources of people, processes, information, and technology that must interact with each other and their environment in support of a common mission. '' (Giachetti 2010) </blockquote>
  
# each other to coordinate functions, share information, allocate funding, create workflows, and make decisions, etc.; and
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An enterprise must do two things: (1) develop things within the enterprise to serve as either external offerings or as internal mechanisms to enable achievement of enterprise operations, and (2) transform the enterprise itself so that it can most effectively and efficiently perform its operations and survive in its competitive and constrained environment.
# their [[Environment (glossary)|environment(s)]] to achieve [[Business (glossary)|business]] and [[Operational (glossary)|operational]] goals through a [[Complex (glossary)|complex]] web of interactions distributed across geography and time (Rebovich and White 2011, 4-35).
 
  
 
===Enterprise vs Organization===
 
===Enterprise vs Organization===
It is worth noting that an enterprise is not equivalent to an "organization” according to the definition above. This is a frequent misuse of the term enterprise. The figure below shows that an enterprise includes not only the organizations that participate in it, but also includes people, knowledge, and other assets such as processes, principles, policies, practices, doctrine, theories, beliefs, facilities, land, intellectual property, and so on.  
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It is worth noting that an enterprise is not equivalent to an "organization” according to the definition above. This is a frequent misuse of the term enterprise. The figure below shows that an enterprise includes not only the organizations that participate in it, but also people, knowledge, and other assets such as processes, principles, policies, practices, doctrine, theories, beliefs, facilities, land, intellectual property, and so on.  
  
Some enterprises are organizations, but not all enterprises are organizations. Likewise, not all organizations are enterprises. Some enterprises have no readily identifiable "organizations" in them. Some enterprises are self-organizing (i.e., not organized by mandate) in that the sentient beings in the enterprise will find for themselves some way in which they can interact to produce greater results than can be done by the individuals alone. Self-organizing enterprises are often more [[Flexibility (glossary)|flexible]] and [[Agile (glossary)|agile]] than if they were organized from above (Dyer and Ericksen 2009; Stacey 2006).
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Some enterprises are organizations, but not all enterprises are organizations. Likewise, not all organizations are enterprises. Some enterprises have no readily identifiable "organizations" in them. Some enterprises are self-organizing (i.e., not organized by mandate) in that the sentient beings in the enterprise will find for themselves some way in which they can interact to produce greater results than can be done by the individuals alone. Self-organizing enterprises are often more {{Term|Flexibility (glossary)|flexible}} and {{Term|Agile (glossary)|agile}} than if they were organized from above (Dyer and Ericksen 2009; Stacey 2006).
  
 
<blockquote>
 
<blockquote>
''One type of enterprise [[Architecture (glossary)|architecture]] that supports [[Agility (glossary)|agility]] is a non-hierarchical organization without a single point of [[Control (glossary)|control]]. Individuals function autonomously, constantly interacting with each other to define the work that needs to be done. Roles and responsibilities are not predetermined but rather [[Emergence (glossary)|emerge]] from individuals’ self-organizing activities and are constantly in flux. Similarly, projects are generated everywhere in the enterprise, sometimes even from outside affiliates. Key decisions are made collaboratively, on the spot, and on the fly. Because of this, knowledge, power, and intelligence are spread through the enterprise, making it uniquely capable of quickly recovering and adapting to the loss of any key enterprise [[Component (glossary)|component]].'' (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_agility)
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''One type of enterprise {{Term|Architecture (glossary)|architecture}} that supports {{Term|Agility (glossary)|agility}} is a non-hierarchical organization without a single point of {{Term|Control (glossary)|control}}. Individuals function autonomously, constantly interacting with each other to define the vision and aims, maintain a common understanding of requirements and monitor the work that needs to be done. Roles and responsibilities are not predetermined but rather {{Term|Emergence (glossary)|emerge}} from individuals’ self-organizing activities and are constantly in flux. Similarly, projects are generated everywhere in the enterprise, sometimes even from outside affiliates. Key decisions are made collaboratively, on the spot, and on the fly. Because of this, knowledge, power, and intelligence are spread through the enterprise, making it uniquely capable of quickly recovering and adapting to the loss of any key enterprise {{Term|Component (glossary)|component}}.'' (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_agility)
 
</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
  
 
In spite of this lack of "organization" in some enterprises, SE can still contribute much in the engineering of the enterprise, as described in the articles below. However, SE must be prepared to apply some non-traditional approaches in doing so. Hence the need for embracing the new discipline called enterprise systems engineering (ESE).
 
In spite of this lack of "organization" in some enterprises, SE can still contribute much in the engineering of the enterprise, as described in the articles below. However, SE must be prepared to apply some non-traditional approaches in doing so. Hence the need for embracing the new discipline called enterprise systems engineering (ESE).
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Giachetti (2010) distinguishes between enterprise and organization by saying that an organization is a view of the enterprise. The organization view defines the structure and relationships of the organizational units, people, and other actors in an enterprise. Using this definition, we would say that all enterprises have some type of organization, whether formal, informal, hierarchical or self-organizing network.
  
 
===Extended Enterprise===
 
===Extended Enterprise===
Sometimes it is prudent to consider a broader scope than merely the "boundaries" of the organizations involved in an enterprise. In some cases, it is necessary (and wise) to consider the "extended enterprise" in your modeling, assessment, and decision making. This could include upstream suppliers, downstream consumers and end [[User (glossary)|user]] organizations, and perhaps even "sidestream" partners and key [[Stakeholder (glossary)|stakeholders]]. The [[Extended Enterprise (glossary)|extended enterprise]] can be defined as:
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Sometimes it is prudent to consider a broader scope than merely the "boundaries" of the organizations involved in an enterprise. In some cases, it is necessary (and wise) to consider the "extended enterprise" in modeling, assessment, and decision making. This could include upstream suppliers, downstream consumers, and end {{Term|User (glossary)|user}} organizations, and perhaps even "sidestream" partners and key {{Term|Stakeholder (glossary)|stakeholders}}. The {{Term|Extended Enterprise (glossary)|extended enterprise}} can be defined as:
 
<blockquote>
 
<blockquote>
''Wider organization representing all associated entities - [[Customer (glossary)|customers]], employees, suppliers, distributors, etc. - who directly or indirectly, formally or informally, collaborate in the [[Design (glossary)|design]], development, production, and delivery of a product (or [[Service (glossary)|service]]) to the end user.'' (http://www.businessdictionary.com)
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''Wider organization representing all associated entities - {{Term|Customer (glossary)|customers}}, employees, suppliers, distributors, etc. - who directly or indirectly, formally or informally, collaborate in the {{Term|Design (glossary)|design}}, development, production, and delivery of a product (or {{Term|Service (glossary)|service}}) to the end user.'' (http://www.businessdictionary.com)
 
</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
  
===Enterprise SE===
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===Enterprise Systems Engineering===
[[Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) (glossary)|Enterprise systems engineering]] (ESE), for the purpose of this article, is defined as the application of SE principles, concepts, and methods to the planning, design, improvement, and operation of an enterprise (see note 3). To enable more efficient and effective enterprise transformation, the enterprise needs to be looked at “as a [[System (glossary)|system]],” rather than merely as a collection of functions connected solely by information systems and shared facilities (Rouse 2009). While a systems perspective is required for dealing with the enterprise, this is rarely the task or responsibility of people who call themselves systems engineers.
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{{Term|Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) (glossary)|Enterprise systems engineering}} (ESE), for the purpose of this article, is defined as the application of SE principles, concepts, and methods to the planning, design, improvement, and operation of an enterprise (see note 3). To enable more efficient and effective enterprise transformation, the enterprise needs to be looked at “as a {{Term|System (glossary)|system}},” rather than merely as a collection of functions connected solely by information systems and shared facilities (Rouse 2009). While a systems perspective is required for dealing with the enterprise, this is rarely the task or responsibility of people who call themselves systems engineers.
  
:<I>Note 3. This form of systems engineering (i.e., ESE) includes 1) those traditional principles, concepts, and methods that work well in an enterprise environment, plus 2) an evolving set of newer ideas, precepts, and initiatives derived from [[Complexity (glossary)|complexity]] theory and the behavior of complex systems (such as those observed in nature and human languages).</I>
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:<I>Note 3. This form of systems engineering (i.e., ESE) includes (1) those traditional principles, concepts, and methods that work well in an enterprise environment, plus (2) an evolving set of newer ideas, precepts, and initiatives derived from {{Term|Complexity (glossary)|complexity}} theory and the behavior of complex systems (such as those observed in nature and human languages).</I>
  
===Services vs Products vs Enterprises===
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==Creating Value==
A [[Service System (glossary)]] is a collection of items (or entities) that perform the operations, administration, management and provisioning [[Acronyms|(OAM&P)]] of resources that together provide the opportunities to co-create [[Value (glossary)]] by both the service provider and the service consumer.
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The primary purpose of an enterprise is to create value for society, other stakeholders, and for the organizations that participate in that enterprise. This is illustrated in Figure 1 that shows all the key elements that contribute to this value creation process.
  
A collection of services is not necessarily a service system. In fact, this collection of services is often merely a product system that is one of the resources being OAM&P'ed by the service system. A product system can be composed of hardware, software, personnel (see note 4), facilities, data, materials, techniques, and even services. Each of these product system [[Element (glossary)|elements]] can be "engineered."
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There are three types of organizations of interest: businesses, projects, and {{Term|Team (glossary)|teams}} (see note 4). A typical business participates in multiple enterprises through its {{Term|Portfolio (glossary)|portfolio}} of projects. Large SE projects can be enterprises in their own right, with participation by many different businesses, and may be organized as a number of sub-projects.
  
:<I>Note 4. Even personnel are engineered in the sense that their roles and responsibilities are specified precisely and trade-offs are made about which functions are performed by these people versus by hardware or software. People are "produced" in the sense that untrained people are trained to perform their allocated system functions, unknowledgeable people are educated to find or create the information they need to do their assigned task, and uninformed people are taught how to get access to the data they need and how to extract relevant information from that data.</I>
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:<I>Note 4. The use of the word “business” is not intended to mean only for-profit commercial ventures. As used here, it also includes government agencies and not-for-profit organizations, as well as commercial ventures. Business is the activity of providing goods and services involving financial, commercial, and industrial aspects.</I>
 
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So, it is important to understand the difference between the services "enabled" by a service system versus the services that are the elements of a service system entity. See the [[Service Systems Engineering]] article for more information about services and how they are engineered.
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[[File:ESE-F01.png|thumb|center|600px|'''Figure 1. Organizations Manage Resources to Create Enterprise Value.''' (SEBoK Original)]]
 
 
Likewise, a collection of services is not necessarily an enterprise system. An enterprise may be composed of service systems, along with product systems, as well as policies, procedures, properties, knowledge, financial capital, intellectual capital, and so on. An enterprise might even contain sub-enterprises. Enterprise SE must do the engineering not only across the enterprise itself, but may also get involved in the engineering of the service systems and products systems that the enterprise depends on in order to achieve its goals.
 
 
 
==Creating Value==
 
The basic concepts that drive the enterprise [[Context (glossary)|context]] of SE are shown in Figure 1. There are three types of organizations of interest – businesses, projects, and [[Team (glossary)|teams]] (see note 4).  A typical business participates in multiple enterprises through its [[Portfolio (glossary)|portfolio]] of projects. Large SE projects can be enterprises in their own right, with participation by many different businesses, and may be organized as a number of sub-projects.
 
 
 
:<I>Note 4. The use of the word “business” is not intended to mean only for-profit commercial ventures. As used here it also includes government agencies and not-for-profit organizations, as well as commercial ventures. Business is the activity of providing goods and services involving financial, commercial, and industrial aspects.</I>
 
  
 
===Resource Optimization===
 
===Resource Optimization===
A key choice for businesses that conduct SE is to what extent, if at all, they seek to optimize their use of resources people, knowledge, assets across teams, projects, and business units. Optimization of resources is not the goal in itself, but rather a means to achieve the goal of maximizing value for the enterprise and its [[stakeholder (glossary)|stakeholders]]. At one extreme in a product-oriented organization, projects may be responsible for hiring, training, and firing their own staff, as well as managing all assets required for their delivery of products or services.  
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A key choice for businesses that conduct SE is to what extent, if at all, they seek to optimize their use of resources (people, knowledge, assets) across teams, projects, and business units. Optimization of resources is not the goal in itself, but rather a means to achieve the goal of maximizing value for the enterprise and its {{Term|stakeholder (glossary)|stakeholders}}. At one extreme, in a product-oriented organization, projects may be responsible for hiring, training, and firing their own staff, as well as managing all assets required for their delivery of products or services. (The term "product-oriented organization" is not meant in the sense of product-oriented SE, but rather in the sense of this being one of the basic constructs available when formulating organizational strategy.)
  
At the other extreme in a functional organization, the projects delegate almost all their work to functional groups. In between these two extremes is a matrix organization that is used to give functional specialists a “home” between project assignments. A full discussion of organizational approaches and situations along with their applicability in enabling SE for the organization is provided in the article called [[Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy]].
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At the other extreme, in a functional organization, the projects delegate almost all their work to functional groups. In between these two extremes is a matrix organization that is used to give functional specialists a “home” between project assignments. A full discussion of organizational approaches and situations along with their applicability in enabling SE for the organization is provided in the article called [[Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy]].
  
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The optimization debate can be handled as described in the book called "Enterprise Architecture as Strategy" (Ross, Weill, and Robertson 2006). In other words, an enterprise can choose (or not) to unify its operations and can choose (or not) to unify its information base. There are different strategies the enterprise might adopt to achieve and sustain value creation (and how ESE helps an enterprise to choose). This is further addressed in the section on Enterprise Architecture Formulation & Assessment in the article called [[Enterprise Capability Management]].
[[File:ESE-F01.png|thumb|center|800px|Figure 1. Organizations Manage Resources to Create Enterprise Value (Figure Developed for BKCASE)]]
 
  
''Note: Red text in this figure is to indicate changes from the version of this diagram in SEBOK draft v0.25.''
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===Enabling Systems Engineering in the Organization===
 
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SE skills, techniques, and resources are relevant to many enterprise functions, and a well-founded SE {{Term|Capability (glossary)|capability}} can make a substantial contribution at the enterprise level, as well as at the project level. The article called [[ Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy]] discusses enabling SE in the organization, while the article called [[Enabling Businesses and Enterprises]] focuses on the cross-organizational functions at the business and enterprise levels. The {{Term|Competency (glossary)|competence}} of individuals is discussed in the article called [[Enabling Individuals]].
===Enabling SE in the Organization===
 
SE skills, techniques, and resources are relevant to many enterprise functions, and a well-founded SE [[Capability (glossary)|capability]] can make a substantial contribution at the enterprise level, as well as the project level. The article called [[ Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy]] discusses enabling SE in the organization, while the article called [[ Enabling Businesses and Enterprises to Perform Systems Engineering]] focuses on the cross-organizational functions at the business and enterprise levels. [[Competency (glossary)|Competence]] of individuals is discussed in the article called [[ Enabling Individuals to Perform Systems Engineering]].
 
  
 
===Kinds of Knowledge Used by the Enterprise===
 
===Kinds of Knowledge Used by the Enterprise===
Knowledge is a key resource for SE. There are generally two kinds of knowledge: explicit and tacit. Explicit knowledge can be written down or incorporated in computer codes. Much of the relevant knowledge, however, is “tacit knowledge” that only exists within the heads of people and in the context of relationships that people form with each other (e.g., team, project, and business level knowledge). The ability of an organization to create value is critically dependent on the people it employs, on what they know, how they work together, and how well they are organized and motivated to contribute to the organization’s purpose.
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Knowledge is a key resource for ESE. There are generally two kinds of knowledge: explicit and tacit. Explicit knowledge can be written down or incorporated in computer codes. Much of the relevant knowledge, however, is “tacit knowledge” that only exists within the heads of people and in the context of relationships that people form with each other (e.g., team, project, and business level knowledge). The ability of an organization to create value is critically dependent on the people it employs, on what they know, how they work together, and how well they are organized and motivated to contribute to the organization’s purpose.
  
 
=== Projects, Programs & Businesses===
 
=== Projects, Programs & Businesses===
The term “[[program (glossary)|program]]” is used in various ways in different domains. In some domains a team can be called a program (e.g., a customer support team is their customer relationship "program"), in others an entire business is called a program (e.g., a wireless communications business unit program), and in others the whole enterprise is called a program (e.g., the Joint Strike Fighter program and the Apollo Space program). And in many cases the terms [[project (glossary)|project]] and [[program (glossary)|program]] are used interchangeably with no discernible distinction in their meaning or scope. Typically, but not always, there are program managers who have profit and loss [[Acronyms|(P&L)]] responsibility and are the ultimate program decision makers. A program manager may have a portfolio of items ([[service (glossary)|services]], [[product (glossary)|products]], facilities, intellectual property, etc.) that are usually provided, implemented, or acquired through projects.
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The term “{{Term|program (glossary)|program}}” is used in various ways in different domains. In some domains a team can be called a program (e.g., a customer support team is their customer relationship "program"). In others, an entire business is called a program (e.g., a wireless communications business unit program), and in others the whole enterprise is called a program (e.g., the Joint Strike Fighter program and the Apollo Space program). And in many cases, the terms {{Term|project (glossary)|project}} and {{Term|program (glossary)|program}} are used interchangeably with no discernible distinction in their meaning or scope. Typically, but not always, there are program managers who have profit and loss (P&L) responsibility and are the ultimate program decision makers. A program manager may have a portfolio of items ({{Term|service (glossary)|services}}, {{Term|product (glossary)|products}}, facilities, intellectual property, etc.) that are usually provided, implemented, or acquired through projects.
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The Office of Government Commerce provides a useful distinction between programs and projects:
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<BLOCKQUOTE>
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''The ultimate goal of a Programme is to realise outcomes and benefits of strategic relevance. To achieve this a programme is designed as a temporary flexible organisation structure created to coordinate, direct and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and activities in order to deliver outcomes and benefits related to the organisation’s strategic objectives...''</BLOCKQUOTE>
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<BLOCKQUOTE>
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''A programme is likely to have a life that spans several years. A Project is usually of shorter duration (a few months perhaps) and will be focussed on the creation of a set of deliverables within agreed cost, time and quality parameters.'' (OGC 2010)
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</BLOCKQUOTE>
  
 
==Practical Considerations ==
 
==Practical Considerations ==
 
When it comes to performing SE at the enterprise level, there are several good practices to keep in mind (Rebovich and White 2011):
 
When it comes to performing SE at the enterprise level, there are several good practices to keep in mind (Rebovich and White 2011):
*Set enterprise fitness as the key [[Measure (glossary)|measure]] of system success. Leverage game theory and ecology, along with the practices of satisfying and governing the commons.
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*Set enterprise fitness as the key {{Term|Measure (glossary)|measure}} of system success. Leverage game theory and ecology, along with the practices of satisfying and governing the commons.
 
*Deal with uncertainty and conflict in the enterprise through adaptation: variety, selection, exploration, and experimentation.
 
*Deal with uncertainty and conflict in the enterprise through adaptation: variety, selection, exploration, and experimentation.
*Leverage the practice of layered [[architecture (glossary)|architectures]] with [[Loose Coupling (glossary)|loose coupler]]s and the theory of order and [[Chaos (glossary)|chaos]] in networks.
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*Leverage the practice of layered {{Term|architecture (glossary)|architectures}} with {{Term|Loose Coupling (glossary)|loose coupler}}s and the theory of order and {{Term|Chaos (glossary)|chaos}} in networks.
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Enterprise {{Term|governance (glossary)|governance}} involves shaping the political, operational, economic, and technical (POET) landscape. One should not try to control the enterprise like one would in a TSE effort at the project level.
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==References==
  
Enterprise [[governance (glossary)|governance]] involves shaping the political, [[Operational (glossary)|operational]], economic, and technical [[Acronyms|(POET)]] landscape. One should not try to control the enterprise like one would in a TSE effort at the project level.
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===Works Cited===
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BusinessDictionary.com, "Extended Enterprise." Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/extended-enterprise.html.
  
==Topics in the ESE Knowledge Area==
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CIO Council. 1999. ''Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF)''. Washington, DC, USA: Chief Information Officer (CIO) Council.  
This series of articles will first provide (1) some background on the [[Scope (glossary)|scope]] of ESE, imperatives for enterprise transformation, and potential SE enablers for the enterprise. It will then discuss (2) how ESE relates to [[System of Systems (SoS) (glossary)|system of systems (SoS)]] and a [[Federation of Systems (FoS) (glossary)|federation of systems (FoS)]]. Next it will describe (3) related business activities and necessary extensions of TSE that enable (4) ESE activities. Each of the ESE process activities is discussed (5) in the overall context of the unique circumstances in the operation of a large and complex enterprise. Finally, it will show (6) how ESE can be used to establish and maintain enterprise [[Operational Capability (glossary)|operational capabilities]]. These six Topics are listed below.
 
  
The topics contained within this knowledge area include:
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Dyer, L., and J. Ericksen. 2009. "Complexity-based Agile Enterprises: Putting Self-Organizing Emergence to Work," in ''The Sage Handbook of Human Resource Management,'' edited by A. Wilkinson et al. London, UK: Sage. p. 436–457.
*[[Enterprise Systems Engineering Background]]
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*[[The Enterprise as a System]]
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Giachetti, R.E. 2010. ''Design of Enterprise Systems: Theory, Architecture, and Methods''. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
*[[Related Business Activities]]
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*[[Enterprise Systems Engineering Key Concepts]]
+
ISO. 2000. ISO 15704:2000, ''Industrial Automation Systems -- Requirements for Enterprise-Reference Architectures and Methodologies''. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 
*[[Enterprise Systems Engineering Process Activities]]
+
 
*[[Enterprise Capability Management]]
+
MOD. 2004. ''Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework (MODAF)'', version 2. London, UK: UK Ministry of Defence.
 +
 
 +
National Library of the the Netherlands. 2010. "Dossier VOC (1602-1799)." Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/voc/voc.html (in Dutch).
 +
 
 +
OGC (Office of Government Commerce). 2010. ''Guidelines for Managing Programmes: Understanding programmes and programme management''. London, UK: The Stationery Office.
  
==References==
+
Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. ''Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice''. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.
  
===Citations===
+
Ross, J.W., P. Weill, and D. Robertson. 2006. ''Enterprise Architecture As Strategy: Creating a Foundation for Business Execution''. Boston, MA, USA: Harvard Business Review Press.  
Dyer, L. and Ericksen, J. 2009. "Complexity-based Agile Enterprises: Putting Self-Organizing Emergence to Work." In A. Wilkinson et al (eds.). ''"The Sage Handbook of Human Resource Management."'' London, UK: Sage: 436–457.
 
  
Rebovich, G., and B. E. White, eds. 2011. ''"Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice."'' Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.  
+
Rouse, W.B. 2009. "Engineering the Enterprise as a System," in ''Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management,'' 2nd ed., edited by A.P. Sage and W. B. Rouse. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.  
  
Rouse, W. B. 2009. "Engineering the Enterprise as a System." In ''"Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management."'', eds. A. P. Sage, W. B. Rouse. 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.  
+
Stacey, R. 2006. "The Science of Complexity: An Alternative Perspective for Strategic Change Processes," in ''Complexity and Organization: Readings and Conversations'', edited by R. MacIntosh et al. London, UK: Routledge. p. 74–100.
  
Stacey, R. 2006. "The Science of Complexity: An Alternative Perspective for Strategic Change Processes." In R. MacIntosh et al (eds.). ''"Complexity and Organization: Readings and Concersations."'' London, UK: Routledge: 74–100.
+
Wikipedia contributors, "Business agility," ''Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia''. Accessed November 28, 2012. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Business_agility&oldid=503858042.
  
 
===Primary References===
 
===Primary References===
Rebovich, G. and B. E. White, eds. 2011. ''"[[Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice]]."'' Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.
 
  
Rouse, W. B. 2005. "[[Enterprise as Systems: Essential Challenges and Enterprise Transformation]]". ''Systems Engineering, the Journal of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) 8'' (2): 138-50.  
+
Bernus, P., L. Nemes, and G. Schmidt (eds.). 2003. ''[[Handbook on Enterprise Architecture]]''. Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
  
Rouse, W. B. 2009. "[[Engineering the Enterprise as a System]]." In ''"Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management."'', eds. A. P. Sage, W. B. Rouse. 2nd ed. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.
+
Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. ''[[Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice]]''. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.  
  
Bernus, P., Nemes L., and Schmidt G., eds. 2003. ''"[[Handbook on Enterprise Architecture]]"'', Berlin & Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
+
Rouse, W.B. 2005. "[[Enterprise as Systems: Essential Challenges and Enterprise Transformation]]." ''Systems Engineering, the Journal of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)''. 8 (2): 138-50.  
  
Valerdi, R. and Nightingale, D. J. 2011. "[[An Introduction to the Journal of Enterprise Transformation]]," ''Journal of Enterprise Transformation, 1''(1), 1-6, 2011.
+
Rouse, W.B. 2009. "[[Engineering the Enterprise as a System]]," in ''Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management'', 2nd ed., edited by A.P. Sage and W.B. Rouse. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.
 +
 
 +
Valerdi, R. and D.J. Nightingale. 2011. "[[An Introduction to the Journal of Enterprise Transformation]]." ''Journal of Enterprise Transformation.'' 1 (1): 1-6.
  
 
===Additional References===
 
===Additional References===
Drucker, P. F. 1994. "The theory of business". ''Harvard Business Review'' (September/October 1994): 95-104.  
+
Drucker, P.F. 1994. "The theory of business." ''Harvard Business Review.'' 72 (5): 95-104.  
  
Fox, M., J. F. Chionglo, and F. G. Fadel. 1993. "A common sense model of the enterprise". Paper presented at A 3rd Industrial Engineering Research Conference, Norcross, GA, USA.  
+
Fox, M., J.F. Chionglo, and F.G. Fadel. 1993. "A common sense model of the enterprise." Presented at the 3rd Industrial Engineering Research Conference, 1993, Norcross, GA, USA.  
  
Gøtze, J, ed. ''Journal of Enterprise Architecture''. https://www.aogea.org/journal.
+
Joannou, P. 2007. "Enterprise, systems, and software—the need for integration." ''Computer''. 40 (5): 103-105.
  
Joannou, P. 2007. "Enterprise, systems, and software—the need for integration". ''Computer'', IEEE, May 2007.
+
''Journal of Enterprise Architecture''. Available: http://www.globalaea.org/?page=JEAOverview.
  
Nightingale, D., and J. Srinivasan. 2011. ''"Beyond the Lean Revolution: Achieving Successful and Sustainable Enterprise Transformation."'' New York, NY, USA: AMACOM Press.  
+
MITRE. 2012. "Enterprise Engineering," in ''Systems Engineering Guide'', MITRE Corporation. Accessed 8 July 2012. Available: http://www.mitre.org/work/systems_engineering/guide/enterprise_engineering/.
 +
 
 +
Nightingale, D., and J. Srinivasan. 2011. ''Beyond the Lean Revolution: Achieving Successful and Sustainable Enterprise Transformation''. New York, NY, USA: AMACOM Press.
 +
 
 +
Nightingale, D., and R. Valerdi (eds). ''Journal of Enterprise Transformation''. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. Available: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/UJET.
 +
 
 +
Saenz, O.A. 2005. "Framework for Enterprise Systems Engineering," in ''FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations''. Miami, FL, USA: Florida International University. Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=etd.
  
Nightingale, D., and R. Valerdi, eds. ''Journal of Enterprise Transformation''. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/UJET.
 
 
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<center>[[Service Systems Engineering Stages|< Previous Article]] | [[Applications of Systems Engineering|Parent Article]] | [[Enterprise Systems Engineering Background|Next Article >]]</center>
  
 
[[Category: Part 4]][[Category:Knowledge Area]]
 
[[Category: Part 4]][[Category:Knowledge Area]]
 
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<center>'''SEBoK v. 2.10, released 06 May 2024'''</center>
 
 
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Latest revision as of 21:43, 2 May 2024


Lead Authors: James Martin, Dick Fairley, Bud Lawson


Enterprise systems engineeringEnterprise systems engineering (ESE) is the application of systems engineering principles, concepts, and methods to the planning, design, improvement, and operation of an enterprise.

Topics

Each part of the SEBoK is divided into knowledge areas (KAs), which are groupings of information with a related theme. The KAs in turn are divided into topics. This KA contains the following topics:

Introduction

This knowledge area provides an introduction to systems engineeringsystems engineering (SE) at the enterpriseenterprise level in contrast to “traditional” SE (TSE) (sometimes called “conventional” or “classical” SE) performed in a development projectproject or to “product” engineering (often called product development in the SE literature).

The concept of enterprise was instrumental in the great expansion of world trade in the 17th century (see note 1) and again during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The world may be at the cusp of another global revolution enabled by the information age and the technologies and culturescultures of the Internet (see note 2). The discipline of SE now has the unique opportunity of providing the tools and methods for the next round of enterprise transformations.

Note 1. “The Dutch East India Company… was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia. It was the first multinational corporation in the world and the first company to issue stock. It was also arguably the world's first mega-corporation, possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonies.” (emphasis added, National Library of the Netherlands 2010)
Note 2. This new revolution is being enabled by cheap and easily usable technology, global availability of information and knowledge, and increased mobility and adaptability of human capital. The enterprise level of analysis is only feasible now because organizationsorganizations can work together to form enterprises in a much more fluid manner.

ESE is an emerging discipline that focuses on frameworks, tools, and problem-solving approaches for dealing with the inherent complexitiescomplexities of the enterprise. Furthermore, ESE addresses more than just solving problems; it also deals with the exploitation of opportunities for better ways to achieve the enterprise goals. A good overall description of ESE is provided by in the book by Rebovich and White (2011).

Key Terms

Enterprise

An enterprise consists of a purposeful combination (e.g., a networknetwork) of interdependent resources (e.g., people, processesprocesses, organizations, supporting technologies, and funding) that interact with

  • each other to coordinate functions, share information, allocate funding, create workflows, and make decisions, etc.; and
  • their environment(s)environment(s) to achieve businessbusiness and operationaloperational goals through a complexcomplex web of interactions distributed across geography and time (Rebovich and White 2011, 4-35).

The term enterprise has been defined as follows:

(1) One or more organizationsorganizations sharing a definite missionmission, goals, and objectives to offer an outputoutput such as a productproduct or serviceservice. (ISO 2000);

(2) An organization (or cross organizational entity) supporting a defined businessbusiness scope and mission that includes interdependent resources (people, organizations and technologies) that must coordinate their functionsfunctions and share information in support of a common mission (or set of related missions). (CIO Council 1999);

(3) The term enterprise can be defined in one of two ways. The first is when the entity being considered is tightly bounded and directed by a single executive function. The second is when organizational boundariesboundaries are less well defined and where there may be multiple owners in terms of direction of the resources being employed. The common factor is that both entities exist to achieve specified outcomes. (MOD 2004); and

(4) A complex, (adaptive) socio-technical system that comprises interdependent resources of people, processes, information, and technology that must interact with each other and their environment in support of a common mission. (Giachetti 2010)

An enterprise must do two things: (1) develop things within the enterprise to serve as either external offerings or as internal mechanisms to enable achievement of enterprise operations, and (2) transform the enterprise itself so that it can most effectively and efficiently perform its operations and survive in its competitive and constrained environment.

Enterprise vs Organization

It is worth noting that an enterprise is not equivalent to an "organization” according to the definition above. This is a frequent misuse of the term enterprise. The figure below shows that an enterprise includes not only the organizations that participate in it, but also people, knowledge, and other assets such as processes, principles, policies, practices, doctrine, theories, beliefs, facilities, land, intellectual property, and so on.

Some enterprises are organizations, but not all enterprises are organizations. Likewise, not all organizations are enterprises. Some enterprises have no readily identifiable "organizations" in them. Some enterprises are self-organizing (i.e., not organized by mandate) in that the sentient beings in the enterprise will find for themselves some way in which they can interact to produce greater results than can be done by the individuals alone. Self-organizing enterprises are often more flexibleflexible and agileagile than if they were organized from above (Dyer and Ericksen 2009; Stacey 2006).

One type of enterprise architecturearchitecture that supports agilityagility is a non-hierarchical organization without a single point of controlcontrol. Individuals function autonomously, constantly interacting with each other to define the vision and aims, maintain a common understanding of requirements and monitor the work that needs to be done. Roles and responsibilities are not predetermined but rather emergeemerge from individuals’ self-organizing activities and are constantly in flux. Similarly, projects are generated everywhere in the enterprise, sometimes even from outside affiliates. Key decisions are made collaboratively, on the spot, and on the fly. Because of this, knowledge, power, and intelligence are spread through the enterprise, making it uniquely capable of quickly recovering and adapting to the loss of any key enterprise componentcomponent. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_agility)

In spite of this lack of "organization" in some enterprises, SE can still contribute much in the engineering of the enterprise, as described in the articles below. However, SE must be prepared to apply some non-traditional approaches in doing so. Hence the need for embracing the new discipline called enterprise systems engineering (ESE).

Giachetti (2010) distinguishes between enterprise and organization by saying that an organization is a view of the enterprise. The organization view defines the structure and relationships of the organizational units, people, and other actors in an enterprise. Using this definition, we would say that all enterprises have some type of organization, whether formal, informal, hierarchical or self-organizing network.

Extended Enterprise

Sometimes it is prudent to consider a broader scope than merely the "boundaries" of the organizations involved in an enterprise. In some cases, it is necessary (and wise) to consider the "extended enterprise" in modeling, assessment, and decision making. This could include upstream suppliers, downstream consumers, and end useruser organizations, and perhaps even "sidestream" partners and key stakeholdersstakeholders. The extended enterpriseextended enterprise can be defined as:

Wider organization representing all associated entities - customerscustomers, employees, suppliers, distributors, etc. - who directly or indirectly, formally or informally, collaborate in the designdesign, development, production, and delivery of a product (or serviceservice) to the end user. (http://www.businessdictionary.com)

Enterprise Systems Engineering

Enterprise systems engineeringEnterprise systems engineering (ESE), for the purpose of this article, is defined as the application of SE principles, concepts, and methods to the planning, design, improvement, and operation of an enterprise (see note 3). To enable more efficient and effective enterprise transformation, the enterprise needs to be looked at “as a systemsystem,” rather than merely as a collection of functions connected solely by information systems and shared facilities (Rouse 2009). While a systems perspective is required for dealing with the enterprise, this is rarely the task or responsibility of people who call themselves systems engineers.

Note 3. This form of systems engineering (i.e., ESE) includes (1) those traditional principles, concepts, and methods that work well in an enterprise environment, plus (2) an evolving set of newer ideas, precepts, and initiatives derived from complexitycomplexity theory and the behavior of complex systems (such as those observed in nature and human languages).

Creating Value

The primary purpose of an enterprise is to create value for society, other stakeholders, and for the organizations that participate in that enterprise. This is illustrated in Figure 1 that shows all the key elements that contribute to this value creation process.

There are three types of organizations of interest: businesses, projects, and teamsteams (see note 4). A typical business participates in multiple enterprises through its portfolioportfolio of projects. Large SE projects can be enterprises in their own right, with participation by many different businesses, and may be organized as a number of sub-projects.

Note 4. The use of the word “business” is not intended to mean only for-profit commercial ventures. As used here, it also includes government agencies and not-for-profit organizations, as well as commercial ventures. Business is the activity of providing goods and services involving financial, commercial, and industrial aspects.
Figure 1. Organizations Manage Resources to Create Enterprise Value. (SEBoK Original)

Resource Optimization

A key choice for businesses that conduct SE is to what extent, if at all, they seek to optimize their use of resources (people, knowledge, assets) across teams, projects, and business units. Optimization of resources is not the goal in itself, but rather a means to achieve the goal of maximizing value for the enterprise and its stakeholdersstakeholders. At one extreme, in a product-oriented organization, projects may be responsible for hiring, training, and firing their own staff, as well as managing all assets required for their delivery of products or services. (The term "product-oriented organization" is not meant in the sense of product-oriented SE, but rather in the sense of this being one of the basic constructs available when formulating organizational strategy.)

At the other extreme, in a functional organization, the projects delegate almost all their work to functional groups. In between these two extremes is a matrix organization that is used to give functional specialists a “home” between project assignments. A full discussion of organizational approaches and situations along with their applicability in enabling SE for the organization is provided in the article called Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy.

The optimization debate can be handled as described in the book called "Enterprise Architecture as Strategy" (Ross, Weill, and Robertson 2006). In other words, an enterprise can choose (or not) to unify its operations and can choose (or not) to unify its information base. There are different strategies the enterprise might adopt to achieve and sustain value creation (and how ESE helps an enterprise to choose). This is further addressed in the section on Enterprise Architecture Formulation & Assessment in the article called Enterprise Capability Management.

Enabling Systems Engineering in the Organization

SE skills, techniques, and resources are relevant to many enterprise functions, and a well-founded SE capabilitycapability can make a substantial contribution at the enterprise level, as well as at the project level. The article called Systems Engineering Organizational Strategy discusses enabling SE in the organization, while the article called Enabling Businesses and Enterprises focuses on the cross-organizational functions at the business and enterprise levels. The competencecompetence of individuals is discussed in the article called Enabling Individuals.

Kinds of Knowledge Used by the Enterprise

Knowledge is a key resource for ESE. There are generally two kinds of knowledge: explicit and tacit. Explicit knowledge can be written down or incorporated in computer codes. Much of the relevant knowledge, however, is “tacit knowledge” that only exists within the heads of people and in the context of relationships that people form with each other (e.g., team, project, and business level knowledge). The ability of an organization to create value is critically dependent on the people it employs, on what they know, how they work together, and how well they are organized and motivated to contribute to the organization’s purpose.

Projects, Programs & Businesses

The term “programprogram” is used in various ways in different domains. In some domains a team can be called a program (e.g., a customer support team is their customer relationship "program"). In others, an entire business is called a program (e.g., a wireless communications business unit program), and in others the whole enterprise is called a program (e.g., the Joint Strike Fighter program and the Apollo Space program). And in many cases, the terms projectproject and programprogram are used interchangeably with no discernible distinction in their meaning or scope. Typically, but not always, there are program managers who have profit and loss (P&L) responsibility and are the ultimate program decision makers. A program manager may have a portfolio of items (servicesservices, productsproducts, facilities, intellectual property, etc.) that are usually provided, implemented, or acquired through projects.

The Office of Government Commerce provides a useful distinction between programs and projects:

The ultimate goal of a Programme is to realise outcomes and benefits of strategic relevance. To achieve this a programme is designed as a temporary flexible organisation structure created to coordinate, direct and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and activities in order to deliver outcomes and benefits related to the organisation’s strategic objectives...

A programme is likely to have a life that spans several years. A Project is usually of shorter duration (a few months perhaps) and will be focussed on the creation of a set of deliverables within agreed cost, time and quality parameters. (OGC 2010)

Practical Considerations

When it comes to performing SE at the enterprise level, there are several good practices to keep in mind (Rebovich and White 2011):

  • Set enterprise fitness as the key measuremeasure of system success. Leverage game theory and ecology, along with the practices of satisfying and governing the commons.
  • Deal with uncertainty and conflict in the enterprise through adaptation: variety, selection, exploration, and experimentation.
  • Leverage the practice of layered architecturesarchitectures with loose couplerloose couplers and the theory of order and chaoschaos in networks.

Enterprise governancegovernance involves shaping the political, operational, economic, and technical (POET) landscape. One should not try to control the enterprise like one would in a TSE effort at the project level.

References

Works Cited

BusinessDictionary.com, "Extended Enterprise." Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/extended-enterprise.html.

CIO Council. 1999. Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework (FEAF). Washington, DC, USA: Chief Information Officer (CIO) Council.

Dyer, L., and J. Ericksen. 2009. "Complexity-based Agile Enterprises: Putting Self-Organizing Emergence to Work," in The Sage Handbook of Human Resource Management, edited by A. Wilkinson et al. London, UK: Sage. p. 436–457.

Giachetti, R.E. 2010. Design of Enterprise Systems: Theory, Architecture, and Methods. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.

ISO. 2000. ISO 15704:2000, Industrial Automation Systems -- Requirements for Enterprise-Reference Architectures and Methodologies. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

MOD. 2004. Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework (MODAF), version 2. London, UK: UK Ministry of Defence.

National Library of the the Netherlands. 2010. "Dossier VOC (1602-1799)." Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://www.kb.nl/dossiers/voc/voc.html (in Dutch).

OGC (Office of Government Commerce). 2010. Guidelines for Managing Programmes: Understanding programmes and programme management. London, UK: The Stationery Office.

Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.

Ross, J.W., P. Weill, and D. Robertson. 2006. Enterprise Architecture As Strategy: Creating a Foundation for Business Execution. Boston, MA, USA: Harvard Business Review Press.

Rouse, W.B. 2009. "Engineering the Enterprise as a System," in Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management, 2nd ed., edited by A.P. Sage and W. B. Rouse. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Stacey, R. 2006. "The Science of Complexity: An Alternative Perspective for Strategic Change Processes," in Complexity and Organization: Readings and Conversations, edited by R. MacIntosh et al. London, UK: Routledge. p. 74–100.

Wikipedia contributors, "Business agility," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Accessed November 28, 2012. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Business_agility&oldid=503858042.

Primary References

Bernus, P., L. Nemes, and G. Schmidt (eds.). 2003. Handbook on Enterprise Architecture. Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.

Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Auerbach.

Rouse, W.B. 2005. "Enterprise as Systems: Essential Challenges and Enterprise Transformation." Systems Engineering, the Journal of the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE). 8 (2): 138-50.

Rouse, W.B. 2009. "Engineering the Enterprise as a System," in Handbook of Systems Engineering and Management, 2nd ed., edited by A.P. Sage and W.B. Rouse. New York, NY, USA: Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Valerdi, R. and D.J. Nightingale. 2011. "An Introduction to the Journal of Enterprise Transformation." Journal of Enterprise Transformation. 1 (1): 1-6.

Additional References

Drucker, P.F. 1994. "The theory of business." Harvard Business Review. 72 (5): 95-104.

Fox, M., J.F. Chionglo, and F.G. Fadel. 1993. "A common sense model of the enterprise." Presented at the 3rd Industrial Engineering Research Conference, 1993, Norcross, GA, USA.

Joannou, P. 2007. "Enterprise, systems, and software—the need for integration." Computer. 40 (5): 103-105.

Journal of Enterprise Architecture. Available: http://www.globalaea.org/?page=JEAOverview.

MITRE. 2012. "Enterprise Engineering," in Systems Engineering Guide, MITRE Corporation. Accessed 8 July 2012. Available: http://www.mitre.org/work/systems_engineering/guide/enterprise_engineering/.

Nightingale, D., and J. Srinivasan. 2011. Beyond the Lean Revolution: Achieving Successful and Sustainable Enterprise Transformation. New York, NY, USA: AMACOM Press.

Nightingale, D., and R. Valerdi (eds). Journal of Enterprise Transformation. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. Available: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/UJET.

Saenz, O.A. 2005. "Framework for Enterprise Systems Engineering," in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Miami, FL, USA: Florida International University. Accessed September 12, 2012. Available: http://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1055&context=etd.


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