System Resistance to Electromagnetic Interference

EMI (electromagnetic interference) is the disruption of operation of an electronic device when it is in the vicinity of an electromagnetic field in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum. Many electronic devices fail to work properly in the presence of strong RF fields. The disturbance may interrupt, obstruct, or otherwise degrade or limit the effective performance of the circuit. The source may be any object, artificial or natural, that carries rapidly changing electrical currents.

Narrowband and Broadband Emissions

EMI is categorized into two types in order to help in analyzing conducted and radiated interference effects: narrowband and broadband. These type of emissions are defined as follows.

Narrowband Emissions

A narrowband signal occupies a very small portion of the radio spectrum… Such signals are usually continuous sine waves (CW) and may be continuous or intermittent in occurrence… Spurious emissions, such as harmonic outputs of narrowband communication transmitters, power-line hum, local oscillators, signal generators, test equipment, and many other man made sources are narrowband emitters. (Bagad 2009, p. G-1)

Broadband Emissions

A broadband signal may spread its energy across hundreds of megahertz or more… This type of signal is composed of narrow pulses having relatively short rise and fall times. Broadband signals are further divided into random and impulse sources. These may be transient, continuous or intermittent in occurrence. Examples include unintentional emissions from communication and radar transmitters, electric switch contacts, computers, thermostats, ignition systems, voltage regulators, pulse generators, and intermittent ground connections. (Bagad 2009, p. G-1)

TEMPEST

TEMPEST is a codename used to refer to the field of emission security. NSA investigations conducted to study compromising emission (CE) were codenamed TEMPEST. TEMPEST is defined in National Security Telecommunications Information Systems Security Issuance (NSTISSI)-7000 as:

Electronic and electromechanical information-processing equipment can produce unintentional intelligence-bearing emanations, commonly known as TEMPEST. If intercepted and analyzed, these emanations may disclose information transmitted, received, handled, or otherwise processed by the equipment. (NSTISS 29 November, 1993, p. 3)

These compromising emanations consist of electrical, mechanical, or acoustical energy intentionally or unintentionally emitted by sources within equipment or systems which process national security information. Electronic communications equipment needs to be secured from potential eavesdroppers while allowing security agencies to intercept and interpret similar signals from other sources. The ranges at which these signals can be intercepted depends upon the functional design of the information processing equipment, its installation, and prevailing environmental conditions.

Electromagnetic Compatibility

Spectrum

Each nation has the right of sovereignty over the use of its spectrum and must recognize that other nations reserve the same right. It is essential that regional forums are provided for the discussion and resolution of spectrum development and infringement issues between bordering and proximal countries that might otherwise be difficult to resolve.

The oldest, largest and unquestionably the most important of these is the International Telecommunication Union. As described in Chapter 3 of the NTIA Manual: "The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ... is responsible for international frequency allocations, worldwide telecommunications standards and telecommunication development activities" (NTIA 2011, p. 3-2).

The Spectrum allocation process is conducted by many different international telecommunication geographical committees. Each nation has the right of sovereignty over the use of its spectrum and must recognize that other nations reserve the same right. It is essential that regional forums are provided for the discussion and resolution of spectrum development and infringement issues between bordering and proximal countries that might otherwise be difficult to resolve. Figure 1 shows the various international forums represented worldwide.

Figure 1. International & Regional Spectrum Management Forums (developed for BKCASE DAU, Snoderly)

One hundred ninety-three Countries are members of the ITU. The broad functions of the ITU are the regulation, coordination and development of international telecommunications.

Asigning frequencies is very complicated as shown in the Radio Spectrum allocation chart in figure 2. Frequencies sometimes are used in the commercial world that are actually assigned to US government Agencies such as the Department of Defense. One such incident occurred when an automatic garage door vendor had installed their doors on a number of homes near a government installation using the same frequency as the installation. Random opening and closing of the doors created a problem for the vendor that could have been avoided.

Host Nation Coordination/Host Nation Approval

In peacetime, international spectrum governance requires military forces to obtain host nation permission to operate spectrum-dependent systems and equipment within a sovereign nation. As an example International governance is honored and enforced within the United States by the U.S. departments of State, Defense and the user service. In wartime, international spectrum governance is not honored between warring countries; however, the sovereign spectrum rights of bordering countries must be respected by military forces executing their assigned missions.

Accordingly, as another example, HNA is solicited by U.S. Naval forces to use spectrum-dependent systems and equipment in bordering countries' airspace and/or on bordering countries' soil. HNA must be obtained before the operation of spectrum-dependent systems and equipment within a sovereign nation. The combatant commander is responsible for coordinating requests with sovereign nations within his or her area of responsibility. Because the combatant commander has no authority over a sovereign nation. The HNC/HNA process can be lengthy and needs to be started early in the development of a system.

Figure 2 The Radio Spectrum (Department of Commerce,2003)

In peacetime, international spectrum governance requires military forces to obtain host nation permission to operate spectrum-dependent systems and equipment within a sovereign nation. International governance is honored and enforced by the U.S. departments of State, Defense and Navy. In wartime, international spectrum governance is not honored between warring countries; however, the sovereign spectrum rights of bordering countries must be respected by military forces executing their assigned missions.

Accordingly, HNA is solicited by U.S. Naval forces to use spectrum-dependent systems and equipment in bordering countries' airspace and/or on bordering countries' soil. HNA must be obtained before the operation of spectrum-dependent systems and equipment within a sovereign nation. The combatant commander is responsible for coordinating requests with sovereign nations within his or her area of responsibility. Because the combatant commander has no authority over a sovereign nation, the HNC/HNA process can be lengthy.

Radiation Hardness

Radiation Hardening techniques are used for designing electronic devices and systems in order to resist damage or malfunction caused by ionizing radiation (van Lint and Holmes Siedle 2000). Electronics in systems can be exposed to ionizing radiation in the Van Allen radiation belts around the Earth’s atmosphere, cosmic radiation in outer space, gamma or neutron radiation near nuclear reactors, and electromagnetic pulses (EMP) during nuclear events. A single charged particle can affect thousands of electrons, causing electronic noise which subsequently produces inaccurate signals. These errors could affect safe and effective operation of satellites, spacecraft, and nuclear devices. Lattice displacement is permanent damage to the arrangement of atoms in element crystals within electronic devices. Lattice displacement is caused by neutrons, protons, alpha particles, and heavy ions. Ionization effects are temporary damages that create latch-up glitches in high power transistors and soft errors like bit flips in digital devices. Ionization effects are caused by charged particles. Most radiation hardened components are based on the functionality of their commercial equivalents. Design features and manufacturing variations are incorporated to reduce the components' susceptibility to interference from radiation. Physical design techniques include insulating substrates, package shielding, chip shielding with depleted boron, and magneto-resistive RAM. Logical design techniques include error-correcting memory, error detection in processing paths, and redundant elements at both circuit and subsystem levels (Dawes 1991). Nuclear hardness is expressed as susceptibility or vulnerability for given environmental conditions. These environmental conditions include peak radiation levels, overpressure, dose rates, and total dosage.

Application to Product Systems

The design principles may be applied to product systems. These include, but are not limited to, EMI, EMC, Spectrum Management and others.

Application to Service Systems

Many of the design principles apply to service systems. Anything that broadcasts or radiates must pay attention to EMI, EMC, Spectrum Management and others.

Application to Enterprise Systems

Many of the design principles apply to enterprise systems, such as civil infrastructure systems. The inter-node interaction are susceptible to EMI/EMC considerations.

Linkages to other topics

The development of any electrical system is susceptible to EMI/EMC considerations.

Practical Considerations (Pitfalls, Good Practice, etc.)

EMI/EMC is difficult to achieve for systems to operate world wide because of the different frequencies products are designed to operate in each of the telecommunication areas. Billions of US Dollars have been spent in retrofitting US DoD equipment to operate successfully in other countries.

Glossary

Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum.

The range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation from zero to infinity. It is divided into 26 alphabetically designated bands. The terms "electromagnetic spectrum" and "spectrum" shall be synonymous. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC).

The ability of systems, equipment, and devices that utilize the electromagnetic spectrum to operate in their intended operational environments without suffering unacceptable degradation or causing unintentional degradation because of electromagnetic radiation or response. It involves the application of sound electromagnetic spectrum management; system, equipment, and device design configuration that ensures interference-free operation; and clear concepts and doctrines that maximize operational effectiveness. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Electromagnetic Environment (EME).

The resulting product of the power and time distribution, in various frequency ranges, of the radiated or conducted electromagnetic emission levels that may be encountered by a military force, system, or platform when performing its assigned mission in its intended operational environment. It is the sum of electromagnetic interference; electromagnetic pulse; hazards of electromagnetic radiation to personnel, ordnance, and volatile materials; and natural phenomena effects of lightning and precipitation static. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3).

The impact of the electromagnetic environment upon the operational capability of military forces, equipment, systems, and platforms. It encompasses all electromagnetic disciplines, including electromagnetic compatibility and electromagnetic interference; electromagnetic vulnerability; electromagnetic pulse; electronic protection, hazards of electromagnetic radiation to personnel, ordnance, and volatile materials; and natural phenomena effects of lightning and precipitation static. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Host Nations (HNs).

A nation which receives the forces and/or supplies of allied nations and/or NATO organizations to be located on, to operate in, or to transit through its territory. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Spectrum Management.

Planning, coordinating, and managing joint use of the electromagnetic spectrum through operational, engineering, and administrative procedures. The objective of spectrum management is to enable electronic systems to perform their functions in the intended environment without causing or suffering unacceptable interference. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Spectrum-Dependent Systems.

All electronic systems, subsystems, devices, and/or equipment that depend on the use of the spectrum to properly accomplish their function(s) without regard to how they were acquired (full acquisition, rapid acquisition, Joint Concept Technology Demonstration, etc.) or procured (commercial off-the-shelf, government off-the-shelf, non-developmental items, etc.). .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

Spectrum Supportability Risk Assessment (SSRA).

Risk assessment performed by DoD Components for all S-D systems to identify risks as early as possible and affect design and procurement decisions. These risks are reviewed at acquisition milestones and are managed throughout the system's life cycle. .(DAG, Defense Acquisition University chapter 7)

References

Please make sure all references are listed alphabetically and are formatted according to the Chicago Manual of Style (15th ed). See the BKCASE Reference Guidance for additional information.

Citations

Bagad, V. S. 2009. Electronic product design. 4th ed. Pune, India: Technical Publications Pune.

NSTISS. 29 November, 1993. Tempest countermeasures for facilities. Ft. Meade, MD, USA: National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security, NSTISSI No. 7000.

Primary References

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Additional References

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