Systems Engineering and Industrial Engineering

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Lead Author: Gregory S. Parnell, Contributing Authors: C. Robert Kenley, Eric Specking, Ed Pohl

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Systems Engineering (SE) overlaps with many fields, such as Industrial Engineering (IE), Engineering Management, Operations Research, Project Management, and Design Engineering. In fact, the main Industrial Engineering body of knowledge, the Industrial and Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (ISEBoK) (IISE 2021), includes systems in the title and includes a section on systems design and engineering, which references the SEBoK. This article describes the similarities and differences between Systems Engineering and Industrial Engineering based upon the respective standards, handbooks, and bodies of knowledge. Based on this assessment, the article describes potential roles that systems engineers and industrial engineers perform during a system’s life cycle.

Introduction

When systems engineers and industrial engineers are in the same organization, they have different roles and responsibilities. While job titles vary by organization, many organizations have individuals that perform both SE and IE activities. This article is intended to help systems engineers and industrial engineers better understand their different perspectives of the fields and the knowledge needed to meet the needs of their organizations and customers. The article compares the use of international standards and the contents of the bodies of knowledge in SE and IE.

This article briefly identifies several SE standards and summarizes the SEBoK. Second, it identifies the use of standards in IE and briefly describes the Industrial engineering body of knowledge (ISEBoK). Third, we use a Venn diagram to compare the two bodies of knowledge. Finally, we conclude with some findings and recommendations.

Systems Engineering

The International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) is a “not-for-profit membership organization founded to develop and disseminate the interdisciplinary principles and practices that enable the realization of successful systems.” INCOSE defines systems engineering as

a transdisciplinary and integrative approach to enable the successful realization, use, and retirement of engineered systems, using systems principles and concepts, and scientific, technological, and management methods. (INCOSE, 2021)

We use the terms “engineering” and “engineered” in their widest sense: “the action of working artfully to bring something about.” “Engineered systems” may be composed of any or all of people, products, services, information, processes, and natural elements.

INCOSE aligns their SE Handbook and the SeBoK with the ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288, System Life Cycle Processes, which focuses on processes. SE is process orientated. Each edition of the Systems Engineering Handbook aligns to an ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 edition. Figure 1 shows the overall structure of the eight parts of the SEBoK. (SEBoK, 2021)

Figure 1. Structure of the SEBoK. (SEBoK, 2021)

The major SE and Management processes and activities are in Part 3 of the SEBoK as shown by its central role in Figure 1.  Figure 2 shows the 15288 processes and how they align with the SE Handbook and SEBoK topic areas. We will use these SEBoK topics of knowledge areas to compare with the knowledge areas of IE in a subsequent section of the paper. The knowledge areas in Figure 2 align with the system life cycle if we start at the top of the first column and traverse to the bottom, continue at the bottom of the second column and traverse to the top, and continue at the bottom of the third column and traverse to the top.

Figure 2. Mapping of Technical Topics of Knowledge Areas of SEBoK with ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 Technical Processes. (SEBoK, 2021)

Industrial Engineering

The Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers (IISE) states that it is “the only international, non-profit, professional society dedicated to advancing the technical and managerial excellence of industrial engineers.” (IISE, Origins of IISE, 2021). IISE started in 1948 as the American Institute of Industrial Engineers. In 1981, the organization was renamed the Institute of Industrial Engineers to reflect its growing international membership. In 2016, the membership voted to change the name to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers. This addition reflects a vote by its membership and aligns with the “changing scope of the profession that, while keeping its industrial base, has seen more industrial and systems engineers working with large scale integrated systems in a variety of sectors”.

IISE developed the ISE Body of Knowledge in 2021 (IISE, 2021). The ISEBoK has 14 knowledge areas, as shown in Figure 3. The first 13 knowledge areas identify the industrial engineering knowledge, and the fourteenth is Systems Design and Engineering, which references the SEBoK. The current ISEBoK provides a short description of each the knowledge area, a detailed outline of knowledge area topics, and a list of references. The ISEBoK does not use standards as its foundation. In fact, the Standard Practice for Systems Safety (MIL-STD-0-882D) is the only standard cited in the reference section. IISE does not currently have a handbook developed by or for the institute. Although McGraw-Hill will release the 6^th edition of Maynard’s Industrial and Systems Engineering Handbook in 2022.  The new edition aligns with the ISEBoK.

Figure 3. Industrial and Systems Engineering Knowledge Areas

The 14 topic areas included in the ISEBoK connect to international standards even though it does not use standards as its foundation or provide references for standards in most of the topic areas. We used key words developed from each topic area’s name to search the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) website (ISO, 2021) to find a rough estimate on the number of standards in each topic area. This search found 100s of potential standards. We do acknowledge that a standard that mentions one of the key words may or may not be relevant. Examples of areas that did not yield any ISO standards from the search are operations research/analysis and engineering economic analysis. This does not mean that those areas do not have applicable standards. Organizations other than ISO do produce guidelines or principles to help practitioners. For example, the environmental protection agency provides guidelines on economic analyses (EPA, 2021). The quality and reliability engineering area used to rely heavily on Mil-Std’s, many of which were eliminated with acquisition reform in the Department of Defense.

Venn Diagram Comparison

We realize that organizations use different job titles, and the same job title may have different responsibilities in different organizations. In this section, we compare the two bodies of knowledge. We present a Venn Diagram to identify the knowledge areas that are usually performed by systems engineers (SE), the ones usually performed by industrial engineers (IE), and the knowledge area descriptions that are used by both disciplines. Figure 4 provides the diagram.

Figure 4. Venn Diagram

We identified 11 primarily SE knowledge areas, 7 IE primarily knowledge areas, and 12 overlapping knowledge areas. Table 1 provides some illustrative examples of the differences in SE and IE focus of the overlapping knowledge areas.

Knowledge Area	SE Focus	IE Focus
2. Operations Research (OR) and Analysis	OR and analysis is used in systems analysis to assess system performance and to evaluate system designs (Levis & Wagenhals, 2000; Wagenhals, Shin, Kim, & Levis, 2000; Wagenhals, Haider, & Levis, 2003; Raz, Kenley, & DeLaurentis, 2018)	OR and analysis is used to optimize operations, maintenance, and logistics. OR is also used to evaluate and optimize manufacturing systems.
5. Quality & Reliability Engineering	Quality and reliability requirements are treated as system-wide performance requirements (Buede &Miller, 2016, 157-159; Wymore 1993, 401) that are assessed at the systems level. One example is availability, A0, which measures the degree to which a system is either operating or can operate at any time when used in its typical operational and support environment. (DA PAM 70-3 2008, 87)	Quality and reliability are used to evaluate and improve the manufacturing process of goods and services. Reliability is also used to evaluate and improve system operations.
6. Ergonomics and Human Factors	Ergonomics and human factors are considerations in assessing the potential usability of a system for end-users in an operational environment. According to Buede and Miller (2016, 180), “Performance elements of usability are ease of learning (learnability), ease of use (efficiency), ease of remembering (memorability), error rate, and subjectively pleasing (satisfaction).”	Ergonomics and human factors are used to assess and improve manufacturing and operational processes.  They are also used to assess and improve the actual usability of products and services.
9. Engineering Management	Engineering managers and SEs work with program managers to develop and improve new products and services.	Engineering managers and IEs support operations managers responsible for manufacturing processes and the operation of systems providing products and services.
11. Information Engineering	Information Engineering is critical to the development of new products and services that are increasingly software intensive. Information engineering is relevant for model-based systems engineering software tools and databases, requirements management software tools and databases, and overall configuration management of the systems design and requirements baseline.	The Information Engineering knowledge area focuses on using data in information systems to facilitate decision-making and business communication.
13. Product Design & Development	SE focuses on the design of systems that provide products and services and the system life cycle. SE includes the technical processes for system design and verification and the technical management processes for project planning, assessment, and control; risk management; and decision management in the Systems Engineering Handbook(2015, 47-83, 104-121).	The knowledge area of the ISEBoK (2021, 53-46) focuses on the design of products and the product life cycle.  It closely parallels the technical processes for system design and development of SEBoK.
Systems Deployment	SEs participate in defining requirements, defining the architecture, and verification and validation of deployment systems needed to the deploy the system of interest, e.g., special transport equipment such as the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft (SCA) that NASA used to transport Space Shuttle orbiters. (Jenkins 2000)	IEs are more focused on air, ground, water, and intermodal logistics to include transportation and distribution of systems and products.
Updates, Upgrades, Modernization	SEs are involved defining requirements, defining the architecture, and verification and validation of updates, upgrades, and modernization of systems. One way that this has been explained is that a second iteration of the systems engineering V-model is completed as the systems remains in service while a system change project is implemented (Ven, Talik, and Hulse 2012).	IE’s are involved in manufacturing processes and supporting operations of systems to provide goods and services. IEs can help identify the need for updates, upgrades, and modernization of manufacturing and service processes and work with EMs, SEs, and design engineers to provide improved capabilities.
Service Life Extension	SEs are involved in service life extension efforts in the same way that they are involved in updates, upgrades, and modernization of systems.	IEs are involved in service life extension efforts in the same way that they are involved in updates, upgrades, and modernization of systems.
System Maintenance	SEs participate in defining requirements for maintenance across the life cycle of the system, determine the impact of maintenance constraints on the system requirements and the system architecture (Walden et al, 2015, 97-98).	IEs provide engineering support to production processes maintenance and system maintenance to sustain operation of production and service processes and systems.
Logistics	SEs participate in defining requirements for logistics across the life cycle of the system, determine the impact of maintenance constraints on the system requirements and the system architecture (Walden et al, 2015, 97-98).	IEs are very involved in logistics planning and operations including supply chain management, transportation, and distribution.
Disposal & Retirement	SEs identify requirements, define the architecture, and verification and validation of disposal and retirement needed to the disposition or retire the system of interest, e.g., nuclear material stabilization processes and equipment needed to disposition fissile nuclear materials to enable shutdown of the nuclear production facilities (Kenley, et al, 1999).	IEs plan for disposal and retirement as part of their product design process.  Increasingly, IEs must consider environmental impact and sustainability issues.

Roles in a System Life Cycle

Systems Engineers and Industrial Engineers have important roles in a system life cycle. Figure 5 modifies a format used in the literature (Buede & Miller, 2016).  We have identified the system life cycle stages and, based on our analysis in the previous section, identified and summarized the major roles of SEs, IEs, and Design Engineers (DE).  We have aggregated some of the processes to simply the chart.

Figure 5. Roles in a System Life Cycle

Summary

The purpose of this paper was to compare the knowledge areas of SE and IE. We used the SEBok and the ISEBoK for this comparison.  Based on our analysis we conclude the following.

·      SE and Management knowledge areas are based on an ISO standard.  IE has several related ISO standards. IISE does not link their BoK to standards.

·      Based on the respective bodies of knowledge, SE is more process focused, while IE focuses more on concepts and techniques. SE and IE have overlapping bodies of knowledge.

·      The SEBoK and the SE Handbook align with the system life cycle. The ISEBoK does not have an apparent organizing structure.

·      SEs and IEs have important roles in the system life cycle.

References

Buede, D. M. & Miller, W. D. 2016, The engineering design of systems: models and methods, Wiley. (Hoboken, NJ, US)

DA PAM 70-3. 2008. Army Acquisition Procedures. Pamphlet, January 28, 2008, Department of the Army. (Washington, DC, US)

Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, IISE Body of Knowledge, viewed November 13, 2021, < https://www.iise.org/Details.aspx?id=43631>

Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, Origins of IISE, viewed November 13, 2021, <https://www.iise.org/details.aspx?id=295>

International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE), What is systems engineering, viewed November 13, 2021, <https://www.incose.org/systems-engineering>

International Organization for Standardization, Standards, viewed November 14, 2021, <https://www.iso.org/standards.html>

ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288, 2015, Systems and software engineering-System life cycle processes.

International Organization for Standardization (Geneva, Switzerland)

Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Preparing Economic Analyses, viewed November 19, 2021, <https://www.epa.gov/environmental-economics/guidelines-preparing-economic-analyses>

Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK), viewed November 15, 2021, <https://www.sebokwiki.org/wiki/Guide_to_the_Systems_Engineering_Body_of_Knowledge_(SEBoK)>

Jenkins, D. R. 2000, Boeing 747-100/200/300/sp, Airliner tech series, v. 6. Specialty Press Publishers and Wholesalers (North Branch, MN, US)

Kenley, B., Scott, B., Seidel, B., Knecht, D., Southworth, F., Osborne, K., Chipman, N. & Creque, T. A. 1999, Program to Stabilize Nuclear Materials as Managed by the Plutonium Focus Area.  Waste Management '99 (Tucson, AZ, US)

Levis, A. H. & Wagenhals, L. W. 2000, C4ISR architectures: I. Developing a process for C4ISR architecture design. Systems Engineering, 3, 225-247. (US)

Raz, A. K., Kenley, C. R. & DeLaurentis, D. A. 2018, System architecting and design space characterization. Systems Engineering, 21, 227-242. (US)

Systems Engineering, INCOSE, viewed November 14, 2021, <https://www.incose.org/systems-engineering>

Systems Engineering and Management, 2021, Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK), viewed November 11, 2021

<https://www.sebokwiki.org/wiki/Systems_Engineering_and_Management>

Ven, M.V.D., Talik, J. and Hulse, J. (2012), An Introduction to Applying Systems Engineering to In-Service Systems. INCOSE International Symposium, 22: 879-894.  https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2334-5837.2012.tb01377.x

Wagenhals, L. W., Shin, I., Kim, D. & Levis, A. H. 2000. C4ISR architectures: II. A structured analysis approach for architecture design. Systems Engineering, 3, 248-287. (US)

Wagenhals, L. W., Haider, S. & Levis, A. H. 2003. Synthesizing executable models of object-oriented architectures. Systems Engineering, 6, 266-300. (US)

Walden, DD, Roedler, GJ, Forsberg, KJ, Hamelin, RD, & Shortell, TM, (ed.) 2015, Systems Engineering Handbook: A Guide for System Life Cycle Processes and Activities, 4^th Edition, Wiley (Hoboken, NJ, US).

Wymore, A. W. 1993. Model-based systems engineering: an introduction to the mathematical theory of discrete systems and to the tricotyledon theory of system design, CRC Press (Boca Raton, FL, US)

Overview of Industrial Engineering

Industrial engineers are trained to design and analyze the components of which man-machine systems are composed. They bring together individual elements that are designed via other engineering disciplines and properly synergize these subsystems together with the people components for a completely integrated man-machine system. Industrial engineers are focused on the improvement of any system that is being designed or evaluated. They make individual human tasks more productive and efficient by optimizing flow, eliminating unnecessary motions, utilizing alternate materials to improve manufacturing, improving the flow of product through processes, and optimizing the configuration of workspaces. Fundamentally, the industrial engineer is charged with reducing costs and increasing profitability through ensuring the efficient use of human, material, physical, and/or financial resources (Salvendy 2001).

A systems engineer leverages industrial engineering knowledge to provide:

• production planning and analysis
• systems integration
• lifecycle planning and estimating
• change analysis and management
• continuous process improvement
• quality assurance
• business case analysis / return on investment
• engineering management
• systems integration

Industrial engineers complement systems engineers with knowledge in:

• supply chain management
• budgeting and economic analysis
• production line preparation
• production
• production control
• testing
• staffing, organizing, directing
• cost, schedule, and performance monitoring
• risk monitoring and control
• operations planning and preparation
• operations management

Industrial Engineering Body of Knowledge

The current overview of the industrial engineering body of knowledge is provided in the Handbook of Industrial Engineering (Salvendy 2001) and Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook (Zandin 2001). The Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE 1992) is currently in the process of developing a specific industrial engineering body of knowledge. Additionally, industrial engineering terminology defines specific terms related to the industrial engineering profession. Definitions used in this section are from this reference. Turner et al. (1992) provide an overview of industrial and systems engineering.

The elements of IE include the following:

Operations Engineering

Operations engineering involves the management and control aspects of IE and works to ensure that all the necessary requirements are in place to effectively execute a business. Key areas of knowledge in this field include: product and process life cycles, forecasting, project scheduling, production scheduling, inventory management, capacity management, supply chain, distribution, and logistics. Concepts such as materials requirements planning and enterprise resource planning find their roots in this domain.

Operations Research

Operations research is the organized and systematic analysis of complex situations, such as if there is a spike in the activities of organizations of people and resources. The analysis makes use of certain specific disciplinary methods, such as probability, statistics, mathematical programming, and queuing theory. The purpose of operations research is to provide a more complete and explicit understanding of complex situations, to promote optimal performance utilizing the all the resources available. Models are developed that describe deterministic and probabilistic systems and these models are employed to aid the decision maker. Knowledge areas in operations research include linear programming, network optimization, dynamic programming, integer programming, nonlinear programming, metaheuristics, decision analysis and game theory, queuing systems, and simulation. Classic applications include the transportation problem and the assignment problem.

Production Engineering / Work Design

Production engineering is the design of a production or manufacturing process for the efficient and effective creation of a product. Included in this knowledge area is classic tool and fixture design, selection of machines to produce product, and machine design. Closely related to production engineering, work design involves such activities as process, procedural and work area design, which are geared toward supporting the efficient creation of goods and services. Knowledge in work simplification and work measurement are crucial to work design. These elements form a key foundation, along with other knowledge areas in IE, for lean principles.

Facilities Engineering and Energy Management

Facilities engineering involves attempting to achieve the optimal organization in factories, buildings, and offices. In addition to addressing the aspects of the layout inside a facility, individuals in this field also possess knowledge of material and equipment handling as well as storage and warehousing. This area also involves the optimal placement and sizing of facilities according to the activities they are required to contain. An understanding of code compliance and use of standards is incorporated. The energy management aspect of this area encompasses atmospheric systems and lighting and electrical systems. Through the development of responsible management of resources in the energy management domain, industrial engineers have established a basis in sustainability.

Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the application of knowledge in the life sciences, physical sciences, social sciences, and engineering that studies the interactions between the human and the total working environment, such as atmosphere, heat, light and sound, as well as the interactions of all tools and equipment in the workplace. Ergonomics is sometimes referred to as human factors. Individuals in this field have a specialized knowledge in areas such as: anthropometric principles, standing/sitting, repetitive task analysis, work capacity and fatigue, vision and lighting, hearing, sound, noise, vibration, human information processing, displays and controls, and human-machine interaction. Members in this field also consider the organizational and social aspects of a project.

Engineering Economic Analysis

Engineering economic analysis concerns techniques and methods that estimate output and evaluate the worth of commodities and services relative to their costs. Engineering economic analysis is used to evaluate system affordability. Fundamental to this knowledge area are value and utility, classification of cost, time value of money and depreciation. These are used to perform cash flow analysis, financial decision making, replacement analysis, break-even and minimum cost analysis, accounting and cost accounting. Additionally, this area involves decision making involving risk and uncertainty and estimating economic elements. Economic analysis also addresses any tax implications.

Quality and Reliability

Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. Reliability is the ability of an item to perform a required function under stated conditions for a stated period of time. The understanding of probability and statistics form a key foundation to these concepts. Knowledge areas in quality and reliability include: quality concepts, control charts, lot acceptance sampling, rectifying inspection and auditing, design of experiments, and maintainability. Six sigma has its roots in the quality domain; however, its applicability has grown to encompass a total business management strategy.

Engineering Management

Engineering management refers to the systematic organization, allocation, and application of economic and human resources in conjunction with engineering and business practices. Knowledge areas include: organization, people, teamwork, customer focus, shared knowledge systems, business processes, resource responsibility, and external influences.

Supply Chain Management

Supply chain management deals with the management of the input of goods and services from outside sources that are required for a business to produce its own goods and services. Information is also included as a form of input. Knowledge areas include: building competitive operations, planning and logistics, managing customer and supplier relationships, and leveraging information technology to enable the supply chain.

References

Works Cited

IIE. 1992. Industrial Engineering Terminology, revised edition. Norwood, GA, USA: Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE). Accessed March 7, 2012. Available: http://www.iienet2.org/Details.aspx?id=645.

Salvendy, G. (ed.) 2001. Handbook of Industrial Engineering, Technology and Operations Management, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Turner, W.C., J.H. Mize, K.E. Case, and J.W. Nazemtz. 1992. Introduction to Industrial and Systems Engineering, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Zandin, K.B. (ed.) 2001. Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 5th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Primary References

IIE. 1992. Industrial Engineering Terminology, revised edition. Norwood, GA, USA: Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE). Accessed March 7, 2012. Available: http://www.iienet2.org/Details.aspx?id=645.

Salvendy, G. (ed.) 2001. Handbook of Industrial Engineering, Technology and Operations Management, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Zandin, K.B. (ed.) 2001. Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 5th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Additional References

Operations Engineering

Hopp, W., and M. Spearman. 2001. Factory Physics, 3rd ed., New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Heizer, J., and B. Render. 2001. Operations Management, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Mantel, S., J. Meredith, S. Shafer, and M. Sutton. 2008. Project Management in Practice. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Operations Research

Banks, J., J. Carson, B. Nelson, and D. Nicol. 2005. Discrete-Event System Simulation, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Hillier, F., and G. Lieberman. 2010. Introduction to Operations Research, 9th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw Hill.

Kelton, W. David, R. Sadowski, and D. Sturrock. 2006. Simulation with Arena, 4th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Law, A. 2007. Simulation Modelling and Analysis, 4th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Winston, W. and J. Goldberg. 2004. Operations Research Applications & Algorithms, Independence, KY, USA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

Production Engineering / Work Design

Freivalds, A. 2009. Niebel's Methods, Standards, and Work Design, 12th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Groover, M. 2007. Work Systems: The Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson-Prentice Hall.

Grover, M. 2007. Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, 3rd ed. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Konz, S., and S. Johnson. 2008. Work Design: Occupational Ergonomics, 7th ed. Scottsdale, AZ, USA: Holcomb Hathaway.

Meyers, F., and J. Stewart. 2001. Motion and Time Study for Lean Manufacturing, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Facilities Engineering and Energy Management

Garcia-Diaz, A., and J. MacGregor Smith. 2008. Facilities Planning and Design, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson-Prentice Hall.

Tompkins, J., J. White, Y. Bozer, and J. Tanchoco. 2003. Facilities Planning, 3rd ed. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Ergonomics

Chaffin, D., and G. Andersson. 1991. Occupational Biomechanics. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Wickens, C., S. Gordon, and Y. Liu. 2004. An Introduction to Human factors Engineering. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Pearson-Prentice Hall.

Engineering Economic Analysis

Blank, L.T., and A.J. Tarquin. 2011. Engineering Economy, 7th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Newnan, D., T. Eschenbach, and J. Lavelle. 2011. Engineering Economic Analysis, 11th ed. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.

Parl, C. 2007. Fundamentals of Engineering Economics. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Thuesen, G., and W. Fabrycky. 2001. Engineering Economy, 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall.

Quality & Reliability

Ebeling, C.E. 2005. An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering. Long Grove, IL, USA: Waveland Press, Inc.

Hawkins, D., and D. Olwell. 1998. Cumulative Sum Chars and Charting for Quality Improvement. New York, NY, USA: Springer.

Kiemele, M., S. Schmidt, and R. Berdine. 1999. Basic Statistics: Tools for Continuous Improvement, 4th ed. Colorado Springs, CO, USA: Air Academy Press.

Montgomery, D., and G. Runger. 2007. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers, 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Montgomery, D. 2013. Design & Analysis of Experiments, 8th ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Montgomery, D. 2009. Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Quality Staff. 2006. Data Quality Assessment: Statistical Methods for Practitioners. Washington, D.C., USA: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Engineering Management

Gido, J., and J. Clements. 2009. Successful Project Management. Cincinnati, OH, USA: South Western.

Kersner, H. 2009. A Systems Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling, 10th ed. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.

Supply Chain Management

Jacobs, F., and R. Chase. 2010. Operations and Supply Chain Management. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Mentzer, J. 2004. Fundamentals of Supply Chain Management: Twelve Drivers of Competitive Advantage. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage.

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